· · · Institutional Repository

Dutch households are responsible for a significant part of the total Dutch energy consumption and CO2 emissions. One option for decreasing household energy consumption and CO2 emissions is to deploy micro-combined-heat-power (μCHP) units. A micro-CHP virtual power plant (VPP) is a cluster of grid connected μCHP units that is monitored and controlled on an aggregate level by a VPP operator for commercial or technical objectives. In this research, the technical feasibility and economic viability of the VPP was evaluated, as well as the impact of the institutional environment on these aspects. Also the VPP was compared to existing systems, to determine whether it is beneficial to implement such a system in the Netherlands.

Many governments in developing countries fail to deliver affordable and sustainable water and sanitation services to their people, particularly the poor. Weak governance, insufficient investments in infrastructure, and inadequate tariff structures are considered to be at the core of poor performing water utilities. Since 2006 the UN Secretary General!s Advisory Board on Water and Sanitation is promoting the WOP (Water Operator Partnership) concept as a way to improve worldwide access to water supply and sanitation. The WOP is defined as a structured program of cooperation among water operators, implemented through mutual support based on knowledge transfer on a not for profit basis. Vitens Evides International (VEI), an alliance of two Dutch drinking water companies, is involved in different WOPs in Yemen, Vietnam and Mongolia. Each project has its successes, but also difficulties are experienced during the execution of the partnerships. To support future decision making on participation in new partnerships, VEI attaches importance to research on lessons that can be learned so far from the ongoing partnerships. The main question in this research is: What factors decisively affect the performance of a WOP, (how) can these factors be influenced, and what conclusions are to be drawn given a certain state of these factors when assessing the feasibility of a successful WOP? Two of VEI!s currently executed WOPs (one in Da Nang (Vietnam) and one in Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia)) were analyzed in order to identify the determinants of a successful WOP. Against the backlight of a theoretical framework provided by the New Institutional Economics (NIE), a qualitative holistic approach to case study research was chosen. By doing so, the case study findings provided the opportunity to – apart from drawing conclusions about the determinants of a successful WOP – reflect on the applicability of the NIE theories on the concept of a WOP. The theories provided by the NIE appeared to be unable to give an explanation for the empirical observations, and give no coherence to the observed characteristics of transactions, actors, and coordination mechanisms. Reflection on the theory shows the context specificity of the NIE framework. The identified determinants of a successful WOP are: a supportive institutional context of the water sector, and relationships between the key individuals that execute the partnership, that are based on trust, respect, and mutual understanding. Building such relationships asks for frequent interaction, time, patience, and for generating “quick wins”.

The functioning of vital infrastructures, such as energy and telecommunications infrastructure, is key to societal and economic security and well-being in modern society. The reliability of these infrastructures is thus of paramount importance. Transmission system operators (TSOs) fulfill a central role in achieving this reliability, by maintaining, operating and developing the transmission networks that form the backbone of the infrastructure. However, the TSOs have to achieve this in changing conditions and with increasing uncertainties; vital infrastructures are faced with rapidly changing market conditions and regulations, especially given the ongoing liberalization process in the European Union. Furthermore, they not only have to maintain reliability, but also other values like affordability, accessibility and sustainability. To ensure an adequate level of reliability, while also remaining efficient and profitable in a changing environment, TSOs need to continuously reevaluate their planning and investment decision making methods. To be able to do this, they need insight in the trade-off between reliability and efficiency and the different investment options to improve reliability. In this research, we aim to add to that insight by comparing three vital Dutch infrastructures (the gas infrastructure, the electricity infrastructure and the fixed line telecommunications infrastructure) using an analytical framework based on the ISO31000 Risk Management standard. By using risk management, we create a generic framework that explicitly deals with uncertainty. We focus on three elements in the risk management process: context, assessment and treatment. The study consists of a comparative case study, based on literature review and interviews with TSOs and regulators. The context has been described along a set of factors, that have been categorized as either technical, economic or institutional. The final set of 12 factors is considered to be as parsimonious, relevant and complete as possible, to give a structured and efficient overview of the different infrastructures. From analyzing the context it follows that the infrastructures are very different, but often have striking similarities on individual context factors and experience similar developments, such as internationalization and institutional fragmentation. This fact enables us to analyze the particular influence of these factors on the assessment and treatment of reliability. This final set of factors thus forms a strong basis for the rest of the analysis. Reliability is neither a simple nor an unambiguous concept for multiple reasons. First, we can identify different levels of reliability. Second, reliability risks can occur on different timescales and in different parts of the supply chain. Third, in vital infrastructures the public interest in reliability has a large influence on the perception of reliability. Finally, the discussion on reliability is often embedded in a specific infrastructure. To compare the assessment of reliability in different infrastructures, we have to deal with these complexities. Therefore, we have developed a new conceptual model that identifies different levels and dimensions of reliability and also is generic enough to be applied to all analyzed infrastructures. The assessment of reliability in gas and electricity infrastructure shows strong similarities, while in telecommunications infrastructure the assessment is radically different as a result of rapid technological developments and strong differentiation in services offered. When analyzing the treatment of reliability, it becomes clear that individual treatment options are very infrastructure specific and comparing them is difficult and of limited use. Therefore, four high-level treatment strategies have been identified, which can be compared between infrastructures. These four treatment strategies are investing in larger infrastructures, investing in smarter infrastructures, supply responsiveness and demand responsiveness. The dominant strategies of the TSO in gas infrastructure are investing in larger infrastructures and supply responsiveness; in electricity infrastructure it is supply responsiveness and in telecommunications infrastructure it is investing in larger and smarter infrastructures. Demand responsiveness is important, but not a central strategy for TSOs, because they deal with aggregated traffic flows and have no direct contracts with consumers in which to include incentives for demand responsiveness. The trade-off between reliability and efficiency is sometimes mistakenly simplified and over rationalized in the discussion between regulators and regulated TSOs. Considering that the costs of reliability risks and the investment costs to reduce these risks can be estimated, it is contended that this trade-off can be analytically optimized. However, given the multidimensionality and subjectivity of reliability and the complexity of transmission networks, this optimization is most likely false and extremely difficult. In an infrastructure where different stakeholders have different perceptions and requirements for reliability, which also change over time and as a result of incidents, an adequate level of reliability can only be determined in a political, rather than an analytical, process. Another concern is that fragmented regulatory oversight and the decoupling of public values, can lead to conflicting interventions and suboptimal decisions by the TSO. Especially when the regulation of a specific value is very stringent compared to other values (e.g. efficiency by price regulation) and the regulated TSO has only specific responsibilities and capabilities, the risk exists that the scope of the TSO is narrowed only to those responsibilities and capabilities, instead of developing and encouraging new solutions. To avoid this, regulation should be more holistic and should address conflicts between different public values instead of decoupling them. To achieve an adequate trade-off between reliability and efficiency, while dealing with institutional fragmentation and uncertainty, TSOs should employ more proactive mechanisms to efficiently and effectively utilize existing and future transport capacity. Especially the gas infrastructure lacks such mechanisms, e.g. an efficient capacity allocation mechanism. Also, while we have shown that analytically optimizing the trade-off between efficiency and reliability produces no sensible results, TSOs still need a way to determine and achieve an adequate level of reliability. Considering the political and complex nature of reliability, it is necessary to develop instruments to achieve long-term reliability in cooperation with other stakeholders.

The European refining system has been through an intense restructuring in the period 2008-2012 and it is still uncertain how this restructuring will unravel. This created the motivation for this research study. Research objective: to analyse if, and in what manner, potential structural, technical changes to the European refining system will most likely affect oil product supply- and demand balances in the period 2010 - 2025. The applied research methodology consists of spread sheet modelling combined with scenario analysis to build an input-output model from the bottom up. Main finding is that supply- and demand balances will most likely further deteriorate and hence cause increased trade flows.

In this thesis, technical-institutional arrangements for the financial settlement of prosumers are considered, with which the low-voltage distribution network efficiency can possibly be improved. The potential and impact of prosumers on the distribution low-voltage network were evaluated by a load-flow model. The performance indicators of network efficiency, with regard to the impact of prosumers on te low-voltage network, were found to be: network capacity; network real power losses;and network voltage magnitude. It was found that the nett maximum RDG feed-in, especially during peak periods, is indicative of the impact of each prosumer on the capacity of the low-voltage network, with: - The degree of correlation between RDG instantaneous output and local consumption is determinative of the total load on network capacity. - By shifting μ-CHP (combined heat power) generation of real power to off-peak periods, capacity utilization is improved. - Curtailing PV (photovoltaics) generation of real power is effective in improving capacity utilization. The nett power generation pattern is indicative of the impact of each prosumer on the real power losses of the low-voltage network, with: - The degree of correlation between RDG output and local consumption is determinative of the total volume to be transported. - Shifting μ-CHP generation or curtailing PV generation, in order to match local demand is effective in lowering real power losses. - Curtailing PV output not effective, since network losses will always be smaller than the volume curtailed. Furthermore, it was found that the network voltage magnitude is not threatened by RDG nor can it be regulated effectively, without high numbers of RDG with voltage control capabilities. Given these results of the load-flow model, regulated tariffs for prosumers are considered. Connection tariffs for prosumers are recommended to remain shallow, since for a deep tariff the computation of the fee is problematic, resulting in obscure tariffs and unfair treatment of new entrants. Prosumers charged shallow connection tariffs are however indifferent of their impact on the distribution network efficiency. Therefore a (limited) prosumer specific network tariff with smart metering is proposed. Capacity issues are expected to occur for only short periods during a day, the smart meter is only required to store and communicate usage data over this period. This way data acquisition and processing costs can be severely limited. Given that losses are a quadratic function of the current, the value of RDG generation is dependent on the total load on the distribution system. Providing incentives to reduce network losses can be applied by distinguishing between periods of high and low load, applying the high and low indexes provided by the smart meter. The prosumer network tariff is then applied with limited costly real-time metering. The smart meter functions can be extend such that time-of-use signals can be provided to prosumers. With high enough RDG presence in LV-networks, time-of-use charges or bonuses could be provided as an incentive to prosumers in order to adjust their generation to distribution system needs. The technical-institutional arrangements that can capture the RDG impact and potential is than characterized by a prosumer specific tariff, employing smart meters, that promotes prosumer participation in the provision of network services.

This article examines the advent of the consulting professor in universities during the Second In-dustrial Revolution. Several cases of consulting professor have been investigated; but no clear ex-planation of the global phenomenon has been putted forward. This article claims that some profes-sors adopted a utilitarian research regime to accommodate the growing laboratory needs of indus-trial companies. Indeed these professors were adjusting their material and intellectual production to produce consulting reports, short advices through verbal and written communication. In addi-tion they were taking patents on some industrial innovation and taking an active role in the society by promoting a vision in which laboratory services by the university were essential to economic development. The article also explains the decrease of this activity during the twentieth century by the progressive implementation of research and development departments in private firms.

Résumé : La formation des ingénieurs électrotechniciens débuta au cours de la Seconde Révolution industrielle (1880-1920) en Europe et en Amérique du Nord. Ce chapitre examine l’établissement du génie électrique au Canada avant la Première Guerre mondiale. Il démontre l’influence de la politique provinciale et des caractéristiques de l’économie régionale sur l’offre de la formation par les universités. Il confirme que la poussée technologique s’est exercée de l’industrie électrique vers les universités. En outre, il explique pourquoi l’université McGill est devenue le chef-lieu de la formation des ingénieurs électrotechniciens au Canada à cause de ses liens avec l’industrie électrique de l’Amérique du Nord-Est. Abstract: The training in electrical engineering has been set up during the Second Industrial Revolution (1880–1920) in Europe and North America. This chapter studies the inception of electrical engineering in Canada. It shows the influence of provincial politics and the characterization of the regional economy on the offering of this engineering specialty by universities. It confirms the technological push from the electrical industry on the universities. Moreover it explains why McGill University became a primary place for the training in electrical engineering, in Canada, because of its connections with the North-East American electricity industry.

Résumé : Ce chapitre traite demande quand et comment les universités ont commencé à répondre aux besoins de recherche des entreprises privées. Il étudie plus particulièrement la commercialisation des services de laboratoire par les universités pour les tests, le contrôle de la qualité et la normalisation. Le résultat saillant est que les universités ont commencé à offrir des services de laboratoires de consultation dès les années 1890. Cette activité générait de faibles revenus qui étaient réinvestis dans le fonctionnement des laboratoires et l’achat d’équipement scientifiques. Les gouvernements supportaient des laboratoires qui offraient de l’assistance technologique à des secteurs industriels en développement. Ces résultats remettent globalement en question la thèse selon laquelle les universités ont commencé à commercialiser la recherche à partir des années 1970. Abstract: This chapter deals with the question of when and how universities began to fill the research needs of private companies. It looks more exactly at the commercialization of laboratory services by universities for testing, quality control and standardization. The main finding is that universities started to behave like consulting laboratories by the 1890s. This activity generated small amounts of money which were invested in the maintenance of the laboratory and in the buying of new laboratory equipment. The governments were supporting some laboratories to provide technological assistance to industrial sectors under development. These results challenge the view according to which the commercialization of research in universities started in the 1970s.

The new president of the United States, Barack Obama, has set his policies on infrastructures. To carry them out, he will resort mostly to economics incentives and, to a lesser extent, regulatory constraints.

How do states have privatized public enterprises? In the book The Official History of Privatization, David Parker, a notorious economist of regulation and privatization, shed light on a country at the forefront of economic reforms, the United Kingdom.

Infrastructures become more intertwined, with time, on an international level. This has important consequences on infrastructure technologies, corporate organizations and economic institutions.

Several companies are implementing the strategy of open innovation in their research and development operations. They become more dependent, therefore, on their capabilities to exchange knowledge and technology with external parties. To facilitate these exchanges, virtual knowledge brokers use web-based information systems. In this paper, we study how they use these systems to take position in the core process of open innovation. Virtual knowledge brokers connect problem owners with potential solvers, showcase technological solutions to potential buyers, or arrange alliances and joint ventures between parties. These core processes correspond to the outside-in, inside-out and coupled, respectively. This study shows that virtual knowledge brokers tend to take position in the outside-in process. Three case studies—Yet2.com, NineSigma and Innocentive—are provided as illustrations. The discussion brings up hypotheses for further research on sectoral patterns of innovation, the codification of knowledge and the internationalisation of research and development.

This article proposes a framework for categorizing possible interrelations between technological and institutional change and applies this framework to the case of the restructuring of the electricity sector. It is argued that there is a need for coherence between institutions and technological practice, so as to safeguard the satisfactory functioning of electricity infrastructure. The identification of possible incoherences between institutions and technological practice allows for a better understanding of the potential drivers for change and the evolutionary processes of which they may be part. This article attempts to elaborate the nature of this co-evolution in somewhat more detail, using specific levels of analysis that are exemplified in a four-level model. In the case of the restructuring of the electricity sector, the institutional framework has changed from a public utility-oriented, towards a market-oriented system. However, the technological practice remained unchanged: a system-oriented approach that relies on centralized planning, control and operation. This discrepancy between institutions and technological practice leads to significant frictions in the functioning of the electricity sector, but it also offers opportunities for innovation. In order to make liberalization a success, it might be necessary to stimulate certain technical developments (i.e. distributed generation and intelligent networks).