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Comparison of macro x-ray fluorescence and reflectance imaging spectroscopy for the semi-quantitative analysis of pigments in easel paintings: A study on lead white and blue verditer

de Almeida Nieto, L.M. (author), Gabrieli, Francesca (author), van Loon, A. (author), Gonzalez, Victor (author), Dik, J. (author), Van de Plas, Raf (author), Alfeld, M.W.E.M. (author)

Macroscopic x-ray fluorescence imaging spectroscopy (MA-XRF) and reflectance imaging spectroscopy (RIS) are important tools in the analysis of cultural heritage objects, both for conservation and art historical research purposes. The elemental and molecular distributions provided by MA-XRF and RIS respectively, are particularly useful for the...

journal article 2023

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Multi-scale optical coherence tomography imaging and visualization of Vermeer’s Girl with a Pearl Earring

Dore-Callewaert, T.W.J. (author), Guo, Jerry Jinfeng (author), Harteveld, G.I. (author), Vandivere, Abbie (author), Dik, J. (author), Eisemann, E. (author), Kalkman, J. (author)

We demonstrate multi-scale multi-parameter optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging and visualization of Johannes Vermeer’s painting Girl with a Pearl Earring. Through automated acquisition, OCT image segmentation, and 3D volume stitching we realize OCT imaging at the scale of an entire painting. This makes it possible to image, with...

journal article 2020

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Revealing unique inscriptions of a Nazi collaborator in Doodencel 601 of the Oranjehotel

Wempe, Joost (author), van den Brink, Rick (author), Mooldijk, Esmée (author), Feirabend, Nienke (author), Wiersma, R.T. (author), Sietsma, J. (author), Dik, J. (author)

During the Second World War the German occupants of the Netherlands made ample use of the Scheveningen prison near The Hague, popularly nicknamed the Oranjehotel. One former death cell in this infamous prison (Doodencel 601) has been preserved in its original condition, showing wartime inscriptions on the cell walls. Interestingly, a small...

journal article 2020

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The role of smalt in complex pigment mixtures in Rembrandt’s Homer 1663: combining MA-XRF imaging, microanalysis, paint reconstructions and OCT

van Loon, A. (author), Noble, P. (author), de Man, D. (author), Alfeld, M.W.E.M. (author), Dore-Callewaert, T.W.J. (author), van der Snickt, G.R. (author), Janssens, K.E.J. (author), Dik, J. (author)

As part of the NWO Science4Arts REVISRembrandt project (2012–2018), novel chemical imaging techniques were developed and applied to the study of Rembrandt’s late experimental painting technique (1651–1669). One of the unique features in his late paintings is his abundant use of smalt: a blue cobalt glass pigment that he often combined with...

journal article 2020

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Fading into the background: the dark space surrounding Vermeer’s Girl with a Pearl Earring

Vandivere, Abbie (author), van Loon, A. (author), Dore-Callewaert, T.W.J. (author), Haswell, Ralph (author), Proaño Gaibor, Art Ness (author), van Keulen, Henk (author), Leonhardt, Emilien (author), Dik, J. (author)

The background of Vermeer’s Girl with a Pearl Earring (c. 1665, Mauritshuis) has, until recently, been interpreted as a flat dark space. The painting was examined in 2018 as part of the research project The Girl in the Spotlight using a combination of micro- and macro-scale analytical techniques. The stratigraphy of the background was...

journal article 2019

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Rembrandt's An Old Man in Military Costume: Combining hyperspectral and MA-XRF imaging to understand how two paintings were painted on a single panel

MacLennan, Douglas (author), Trentelman, Karen (author), Szafran, Yvonne (author), Woollett, Anne T. (author), Delaney, John K. (author), Janssens, Koen (author), Dik, J. (author)

Over the past several decades the painting An Old Man in Military Costume by Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (ca. 1630–31; J. Paul Getty Museum, 78.PB.246) has been the subject of a number of investigations carried out in order to better visualize a second painting beneath the surface figure. The underlying image–the head and shoulders of a man...

journal article 2019

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Comparison of three 3D scanning techniques for paintings, as applied to Vermeer’s ‘Girl with a Pearl Earring’

Elkhuizen, W.S. (author), Dore-Callewaert, T.W.J. (author), Leonhardt, Emilien (author), Vandivere, Abbie (author), Song, Y. (author), Pont, S.C. (author), Geraedts, Jo M.P. (author), Dik, J. (author)

A seventeenth-century canvas painting is usually comprised of varnish and (translucent) paint layers on a substrate. A viewer’s perception of a work of art can be affected by changes in and damages to these layers. Crack formation in the multi-layered stratigraphy of the painting is visible in the surface topology. Furthermore, the impact of...

journal article 2019

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Re-printing architectural heritage: Exploring current 3D printing and scanning technologies

Bekkering, Juliette (author), Kuit, Barbara (author), Hein, C.M. (author), Turrin, M. (author), Dik, J. (author), Hanna, J.M.K. (author), Alkadri, M.F. (author), Așut, Serdar (author), Knaack, U. (author), Koorstra, P.A. (author)

Additive Manufacturing (commonly known as 3D printing) technology has become a global phenomenon. In the domain of heritage, 3D printing is seen as a time and cost efficient method for restoring vulnerable architectural structures. The technology can also provide an opportunity to reproduce missing or destroyed cultural heritage, in the cases...

journal article 2019

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Gloss, color and topography scanning for reproducing a painting’s appearance using 3D printing

Elkhuizen, W.S. (author), Essers, T.T.W. (author), Song, Y. (author), Geraedts, Jo M.P. (author), Weijkamp, Clemens (author), Dik, J. (author), Pont, S.C. (author)

High fidelity reproductions of paintings provide new opportunities to museums in preserving and providing access to cultural heritage. This paper presents an integrated system which is able to capture and fabricate color, topography and gloss of a painting, of which gloss capturing forms the most important contribution. A 3D imaging system,...

journal article 2019

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Macroscopic x-ray powder diffraction imaging reveals Vermeer’s discriminating use of lead white pigments in Girl with a Pearl Earring

De Meyer, S. (author), Vanmeert, F. (author), Vertongen, R. (author), Van Loon, A. (author), Gonzalez, V.M.J.M. (author), Delaney, J. (author), Dooley, K. (author), Dik, J. (author), Van der Snickt, G. (author), Vandivere, A. (author), Janssens, K. (author)

Until the 19th century, lead white was the most important white pigment used in oil paintings. Lead white is typically composed of two crystalline lead carbonates: hydrocerussite [2PbCO₃·Pb(OH)₂] and cerussite (PbCO₃). Depending on the ratio between hydrocerussite and cerussite, lead white can be classified...

journal article 2019

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New insights into the complex photoluminescence behaviour of titanium white pigments

van Driel, B.A. (author), Artesani, A. (author), van den Berg, K.J. (author), Dik, J. (author), Mosca, S. (author), Rossenaar, B. (author), Hoekstra, J. (author), Davies, A. (author), Nevin, A. (author), Valentini, G. (author), Comelli, D. (author)

This work reports the analysis of the time-resolved photoluminescence behaviour on the nanosecond and microsecond time scale of fourteen historical and contemporary titanium white pigments. The pigments were produced with different production methods and post-production treatments, giving rise to a remarkable variability of titanium dioxide...

journal article 2018

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The white of the 20th century: an explorative survey into Dutch modern art collections

van Driel, B.A. (author), van den Berg, K.J. (author), Gerretzen, J. (author), Dik, J. (author)

White pigments were abundantly used in 20th century paintings, and relate to several degradation risks such as titanium white mediated photocatalytic binder degradation or zinc soap formation. Knowledge about the white pigments that were used is essential for risk assessments of 20th century collections. In this study, a representative set of...

journal article 2018

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Determining the presence of photocatalytic titanium white pigments via embedded paint sample staining: A proof of principle

van Driel, B.A. (author), van der Meer, Sharon R. (author), van den Berg, K.J. (author), Dik, J. (author)

Twentieth century paints often contain titanium dioxide and zinc oxide based white pigments that can range from photostable to highly photocatalytic. Photocatalytic pigments can cause the degradation of paint upon UV exposure, whereas photostable pigments may be benign or can protect paintings from degradation. Hence, knowing whether or not a...

journal article 2018

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Separating two painting campaigns in Saul and David, attributed to Rembrandt, using macroscale reflectance and XRF imaging spectroscopies and microscale paint analysis

Dooley, Kathryn A. (author), Gifford, E. Melanie (author), van Loon, A. (author), Noble, Petria (author), Zeibel, Jason G. (author), Conover, Damon M. (author), Alfeld, Matthias (author), van der Snickt, G.R. (author), Legrand, Stijn (author), Janssens, Koen (author), Dik, J. (author), Delaney, John K. (author)

Late paintings of Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669) offer intriguing problems for both art historians and conservation scientists. In the research presented here, the key question addressed is whether observed stylistic differences in paint handling can be correlated with material differences. In Saul and David, in the collection of the Royal...

journal article 2018

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Development of a high resolution topography and color scanner to capture crack patterns of paintings

van Hengstum, M.J.W. (author), Essers, T.T.W. (author), Elkhuizen, W.S. (author), Dodou, D. (author), Song, Y. (author), Geraedts, Jo M.P. (author), Dik, J. (author)

The aging of paintings is inevitable and over the years degradation occurs due to exposure to a variety of environmental influences. One of these degradations is craquelure, fracture patterns in the paint. 3D imaging techniques offer opportunities to capture the surface of a painting and these patterns at high resolution. In this paper we...

conference paper 2018

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Investigating the effect of artists’ paint formulation on degradation rates of TiO₂‑based oil paints

van Driel, B.A. (author), van den Berg, K. J. (author), Smout, M. (author), Dekker, N. (author), Kooyman, P.J. (author), Dik, J. (author)

This study reports on the effect of artists’ paint formulation on degradation rates of TiO2-based oil paints. Titanium white oil paint exists in a multitude of different recipes, and the effect of the formulation on photocatalytic binder<br/>degradation kinetics is unknown. These formulations contain, among others, one or both titanium dioxide...

journal article 2018

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Determination of early warning signs for photocatalytic degradation of titanium white oil paints by means of surface analysis

van Driel, B.A. (author), Wezendonk, T.A. (author), van den Berg, K. J. (author), Kooyman, P.J. (author), Gascon, Jorge (author), Dik, J. (author)

Titanium white (TiO₂) has been widely used as a pigment in the 20th century. However, its most photocatalytic form (anatase) can cause severe degradation of the oil paint in which it is contained. UV light initiates TiO₂-photocatalyzed processes in the paint film, degrading the oil binder into volatile components...

journal article 2017

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Hidden library: Visualizing fragments of medieval manuscripts in early-modern bookbindings with mobile macro-XRF scanner

Duivenvoorden, Jorien R. (author), Käyhkö, Anna (author), Kwakkel, Erik (author), Dik, J. (author)

This experiment demonstrates the large potential of macro-XRF imaging for the visualization of fragments of medieval manuscripts hidden in early-modern bookbindings. The invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century made manuscripts obsolete and bookbinders started recycling their strong parchment leaves to reinforce bindings of...

journal article 2017

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Artificial orpiment, a new pigment in Rembrandt’s palette

van Loon, A. (author), Noble, Petria (author), Krekeler, Anna (author), van der Snickt, G.R. (author), Janssens, Koen (author), Abe, Yoshinari (author), Nakai, Izumi (author), Dik, J. (author)

This paper reports on how the application of macro X-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) imaging, in combination with the re-examination of existing paint cross-sections, has led to the discovery of a new pigment in Rembrandt’s palette: artificial orpiment. In the NWO Science4Arts ‘ReVisRembrandt’ project, novel chemical imaging techniques are being...

journal article 2017

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Large area imaging of forensic evidence with MA-XRF

Langstraat, Kirsten (author), Knijnenberg, Alwin (author), Edelman, Gerda (author), Van De Merwe, Linda (author), van Loon, A. (author), Dik, J. (author), van Asten, Arian C. (author)

This study introduces the use of macroscopic X-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) for the detection, classification and imaging of forensic traces over large object areas such as entire pieces of clothing and wall paneling. MA-XRF was sufficiently sensitive and selective to detect human biological traces like blood, semen, saliva, sweat and urine on...

journal article 2017