The implications of a CE and the transition towards it are widely researched. However, there is a lack of research into the relevant geographical scales of CE. Thus, this research aims to present a framework that identifies the optimal geographical scale for the recycling of materials based on various factors. The framework is tested against a case study of recycled concrete and copper for the municipality of Leiden. For the economic factor, a crude cost benefit analysis is carried out. For the environmental factor, a life cycle assessment (LCA) of both concrete and copper recycling is conducted.
Based on the results of the analyses, the framework indicates that concrete rubble can be transported up to 70km by truck and 110km by barge. Under present circumstances, economic cost is not a limiting factor, with an upper limit of 160-170km. The results for copper seem to indicate that environmental impact and economic cost are not the determining factors for geographic scale. Based on environmental impact scrap copper can be transported 4330km by truck or 11500km by barge. Based on economic cost the copper scrap can be transported as far as 12300km.
The framework has the potential to help decision making on the geographical scale of the recycling process for specific materials. The results of the framework could be used by government agencies for new policies or spatial planning. Within academic research the framework can add practical knowledge. This will add to the understanding of how CE can contribute to minimising environmental impact.

In recent decades Europe has been increasing its demand and consumption of electronics. This has in turn resulted in major outflows of waste electronics (WEEE) that are usually not properly dealt with. This is especially the case for low to medium grade printed circuit boards (PCBs) which unlike higher grade electronics such as computers are currently not profitable to recycle. Therefore this thesis, as a part of the Peacoc project, investigated the low energy separation methods roll sorting, magnetic separation and magnetic density separation to concentrate the precious and critical metals found in the components of these discarded PCBs. The resulting secondary material flows were then evaluated on their impact in the EU from a material and energetical perspective.The roll sorter was able to significantly increase the concentrations of the precious metal rich target components (Central processing units, IC chips and transistors, MLCC + Ta capacitors, Small transistors and IC chips and Connectors of plastic with golden pins). The machine sorted the feed into multiple width sizes (< 3.0, 3.0 - 5.0, 5.0 - 7.0 and > 7.0 mm) of which all except > 7.0 were used for further processing, increasing the overall grade from 18.66 to 42.61 wt%. This was further increased by the magnetic separator (lightly and non magnetic fractions for < 3.0 mm and only the non magnetic fraction for 3.0 - 7.0 mm) to 53.69 wt% and magnetic density separation (only for non magnetic 5.0 - 7.0 mm)to 66.23 wt%. Recovery for all target categories was near 100% with the exception of Connectors of plastic with golden pins as these were too large for the roll sorter to sort.The thesis also took a broader approach by employing a dynamic material flow analysis to determine the low to medium grade PCBs and their accompanying precious metal flows in the EU. The expected metal flows were low (∼4%) compared to the EU’s overall demand in 2020 and expected to decrease over the years due to miniaturisation (decreasing size and weight) of the components. Furthermore, only around 36.68 wt% of the maximum precious metal flows were expected to be captured due to low collection rates of WEEE and small loses in separation and metallurgical recovery. Nonetheless, a sizeable fraction of the EU’s electronics sector’s demand (over 10%) could be supplied. These results were confirmed by modelling different future scenarios, a Monte-Carlo uncertainty and sensitivity analysis of the model.Lastly, the thesis explored the topic of critical raw materials (CRMs) and the direct energy requirements of Peacoc’s recovery system. It was found that beryllium, antimony, platinum and palladium were the only CRMs that had any significant potential to supply the EU (9.13% for beryllium, 1.58% for antimony,1.32% for platinum and 4.02% for palladium). If only looking at the electronics sector this was also the case for cobalt and vanadium. The newly captured secondary precious metals were shown to require significantly less energy to produce, around an order of magnitude, compared to primary production but were similar to other recycling pathways. Furthermore, the majority of energy was required during metallurgical recovery showing a potential for further mechanical concentration during separation.In conclusion it can be stated that the separation technologies (roll sorting, magnetic separation and magnetic density separation) are effective methods for separating the components of low to medium grade PCBs. However, their impact on the circularity and energetical footprint of the whole EU are expected to be small.

Inherently related to the quadrupling of global population and the 20-fold increase of global economic output in the last century, is the increase of inputs of raw materials and energy into society and its corresponding outflows. In order to lower the volume of outflows and effectively control pollution, a reduction of raw material use throughout the economy is required. A shift from a linear to a circular economy plays an important role in achieving global climate goals. In a circular economy materials are kept in use for as long as possible so that the need for virgin materials is as little as possible. From a perspective of a circular economy material stocks in urban areas can be considered as ‘natural resources’. These in-use stocks can be described as the urban mine, a concept that is defined as the systematic reuse of anthropogenic materials from urban areas such as buildings and infrastructure for example. Although using the urban mine is desirable, knowledge about stocks and flows of the potential urban mines is limited. One of the infrastructure stocks that has not been assessed yet is the infrastructure of the urban water cycle in the Netherlands. The Dutch urban water cycle as assessed in this study consists of the drinking water production sites and supply network as managed by the 10 drinking water companies, the sewage network, gully pots and a large part of the sewage pumping stations as managed by the municipalities, and some of the sewage pumping stations, transportation pipelines and wastewater treatment plants as managed by the 21 water boards in the Netherlands. In order to analyse the urban mine of the Dutch urban water cycle infrastructure, stock data was gathered about the current size and historic development of the different components of the urban water cycle infrastructure. Per component, the material composition and share is determined to calculate the total material stocks of the urban water cycle between 1950 and 2020…

Flame retardants are added to plastics in passenger vehicles to save lives. However, their releases can, in some cases, be accompanied by undesired impacts to human health and the environment. In the context of a transition to a Circular Economy, it is therefore important to keep track of the flow of flame retardants in passenger vehicle plastics. This study focuses on the flame retardant Decabromodiphenyl Ether (decaBDE), whose use in plastics has become banned in recent years.
Through a static layered material flow analysis, the flows of plastics and decaBDE are quantified for passenger vehicles in The Netherlands in 2019. Afterwards, six scenarios are created outlining different possible approaches to plastics and flame retardants: Reference, Recycling, Incineration, Less Cars, No DecaBDE Ban, and No Substitution. The first four of these scenarios acknowledge the progressive phasing out of decaBDE and include the use of an additional flame retardant, triphenyl phosphate (TPP). At the hands of a dynamic layered material flow analysis, the stocks and flows of plastics, decaBDE, and TPP, are calculated from 1980 until 2050. The emissions calculated in this step, as well as the flow of flame retardant directed to incineration, are then used to evaluate the environmental performance of each scenario by means of a life cycle impact assessment. The results from the life cycle impact assessment show that, from a midpoint perspective, no scenario is a clear winner. Moreover, the lack of characterization factors for some categories makes it difficult to assess the reliability of the results. From an endpoint perspective, the best performing scenarios are the TPP-free scenarios No DecaBDE Ban and No Substitution. This is because TPP is shown to have a significant influence in the global warming impacts. From the TPP-using scenarios, the best performing one is the Recycling scenario, which shows the advantages of promoting recycling strategies in the sector. Overall, TPP-using scenarios perform worse environmentally than decaBDE-using scenarios.
According to the findings in this study, some of the key elements that could smooth the transition to a sustainable and healthy circular economy are policy measures that incentivize plastic recycling in the automotive industry and the use of less cars per capita.
Further research is needed on the environmental performance of less harmful flame retardant alternatives to decaBDE. The methodology used in this study could serve as a framework in future research for other type of product applications as it is useful to evaluate different policies involving chemicals or additives embedded in materials over time. With this methodology, a link is made between the product, material, and chemical layers, able to bridge potential gaps in the often data scarce chemical layer.

This study is a first attempt to address some of the more significant gaps in the available data on (European) furniture. Furthermore, this study takes a dynamic stock analysis approach to look into material stock- and flow dynamics of European household furniture and project them over time. A total of 11 material categories in 14 furniture product categories are assessed. Using principles of dynamic stock analysis and IMAGE data on population and residential floorspace per capita: a Python model has been developed to assess required furniture- and material stocks, the required primary material used in furniture production and the total amount of recycled- and landfilled material per year, and to project the results overtime. To further inform the model, a material database is developed, containing material- and lifetime information on 14 furniture product categories and a survey (n=108) on household furniture has been conducted to derive furniture intensities per unit residential surface. To project the development of material stocks- and flows in European household furniture over time, two scenarios are defined: the business-as-usual or the ‘baseline’ scenario and a second scenario called ‘the reduced waste scenario’ in which reuse and recycle fractions are gradually increased over time. Following business-as-usual patterns in the baseline scenario, the total material stock for furniture is projected to increase with roughly 97 Mt (or 20%) to 584 Mt, towards 2050. The total amount of landfilled- and recycled waste material from household furniture is estimated to be 36 Mt and 4 Mt respectively in 2050. The total amount of required primary material is estimated to increase to 38.5 Mt in total in 2050. In the reduced waste scenario, the total amount of landfilled material is estimated to decrease to 15 Mt in 2050, where the amount of recycled material is estimated to increase to 15 Mt. Also the amount of required primary material is estimated to decrease to less than 18 Mt in 2050. The results from the reduced waste scenario show that a gradual increase from the reuse fraction from 2021 onwards (from 6% to 35% with a 1% step per year) and a gradual increase from the recycle fraction from 2021 onwards (from 10% to 50% with a 2% step per year), would be enough to reduce the need for primary material by half towards 2050. Based on these results, it is the author’s conviction that furniture should be given a separate waste status, similar to that of cars as set out in the end-of-life vehicle directive (European Commission, 2000): materials inside furniture should be labelled and furniture manufacturers should develop dismantling guidelines for their products to ease repair, remanufacturing and recycling. Targets should be set on the country level for the recycling of waste furniture and for the use of recycled (furniture) material in primary production. … Let’s wake up to furniture waste.

The growing demand for food production and the global developments regarding the intensification and mechanization of agriculture are likely to affect material use in the agricultural sector in some way in the future. This study addressed a research gap regarding the current and future material requirements of the global agricultural system, and it represents a first attempt to estimate the size and composition of the current global material stock embedded in agricultural field machinery. The study also explored the potential future developments of this material stock in five Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) through a material scenario analysis, which utilized scenario data generated by an integrated assessment model IMAGE. Available country-level data on the number of machinery in use was linked to agricultural production data through the calculation of ‘mechanization factors’, which describe the relationship of the size of the in-use machinery stock and the annual production quantities of a country. Regionally aggregated mechanization factors were used in combination with regional production data for the estimation of the total numbers of different field machinery currently in use in 26 world regions. These numbers were combined with literature-based estimates of the average material compositions and masses of different types of agricultural field machinery to quantify their current in-use material stocks. Steel (121 Mt), ductile iron (86 Mt), and rubber (21 Mt) were identified as the largest global material stocks of agricultural field machinery, and the largest shares of the materials were found in tractors and combine harvesters. The results of the quantification of the current material stock were incorporated in a material scenario analysis in combination with IMAGE scenario data on agricultural production in the different SSPs. The scenario analysis involved two scenario models with distinct assumptions concerning the development of mechanization levels over time. Depending on the SSP scenario and the model assumptions, the results of the scenario analysis indicated a 50 to 200 percent growth in the global material stock of agricultural machinery by the year 2100. While the scenario analysis assumed the current agricultural practices and technologies to maintain their importance in the future, the study also explored some newer developments taking place in the global agricultural system and the ways they might influence the material stock of agricultural machinery in the future.

SummaryThe municipality of The Hague and the Social housing associations are researching on how to cope with the population growth in The Hague. Every year approximately 5,000 new persons arrive at The Hague, meaning that in 10 years The Hague will increase their population by 8%. The main problem is that currently, the city has a shortage of social housing, which is the most vulnerable sector in the city. The municipality has a variety of new governmental strategies that provide answers for these upcoming changes. The main challenge is that the municipality of The Hague’s strategies in the construction sector will result in significant volumes of waste. These waste streams need to be quantified to find opportunities for urban mining. Typically, the materials extracted from the construction and demolition (C&D) sector are downcycled into less valuable materials, incinerated or sent to the landfill, backfiring in economic loss and increase in CO₂ emissions. Nowadays, there are companies that recover the material form the C&D site and recycle it into new construction material. However, even if it has been proved that circular demolition is between 10-15% cheaper and decreases emissions up to 44%, it is not a common practice. This develops the questions about ‘why urban mining is not a common practice?’, and ‘how can it be encouraged?’The purpose of this research is to explore the topic of urban mining by assessing the possibilities of implementing urban mining in the social housing sector in the upcoming years.Methodology: For this research, three methods have been selected; A) Interviews, B) Stakeholder analysis and C) Mass Flow Analysis (MFA). A) Interviews: Ten interviews were conducted with the main stakeholders related to urban mining of social housing in The Hague. These include the municipality of The Hague, Social housing associations and C&D companies.B)Stakeholder Analysis: The stakeholder analysis was performed to analyse the relation and communication between the various parties involved. The goal of this analysis was to understand the communications barriers that stand in the way of urban mining becoming a common practice. C)Mass Flow Analysis: Using four different criteria (construction year, land use, energy label and the 20-80 rule) two estimations were created to quantify the projected number of social housing buildings that might be demolished by 2050. The result of the two estimates was the monetising of the material – brick and glass- that can be extracted from the social housing buildings.Results: Two main findings were established from the methodologies. On the one hand, the interviews and stakeholder analysis led to the finding that there is a lack of proper communication between social housing associations, municipalities, and C&D companies. The various parties are interested in collaborating in the area of urban mining. However, the lack of direct communication channels resulted in the slowing down of the process of upscaling to larger urban mining projects. On the other hand, after doing the MFA, the results showed that urban mining practices could be between 15-20% more profitable than standard practices. Construction companies can save up to 20% by buying recycled material from a C&D site. The results also showed that urban mining of materials, such as brick and glass, can reduce the CO₂ emissions by 44%.Conclusion: Urban mining in The Hague is an environmentally friendly and profitable option if the different parties agree to collaborate. After the municipality of The Hague creates a framework on how to apply urban mining techniques for the buildings owned by the municipality itself, the process can be more easily replicated by other companies. Scientific relevance: This research quantifies the competitiveness of urban mining of social housing in The Hague, opening the path for new research about urban mining implementation and development.

The research for this thesis relates to the assessment of the material needs for the vehicle fleet for global passenger and freight transport. The specific vehicles in these two categories that were assessed are: maritime vessels, inland shipping vessels, trucks, planes, buses and trains which will be divided into smaller categories of vehicles. First the global stock of the vehicles will be assessed, which is followed by a global dynamic stock and flow MFA (Material Flow Analysis) of these transport vehicles between 1970 and 2050. The MFA will base the stock and flows on the baseline and 2°C scenario of the SSP2 (Shared Socioeconomic Pathway). In these scenarios the extent to which the fleet is electrified is assessed as well as the material consequences thereof.

The transition to a renewable electricity system requires more intensive material use, causing problem shifting in environmental impacts. To conserve resources for the future and mitigate environmental impact, circular economy principles are needed. This study analyses material flows in Dutch wind energy towards 2050 to identify the potential for material recovery. This reveals material demand, stock, secondary material supply and required recycling infrastructure within environmental and economic context. Material compositions, current stock and future installed capacity result in inflow, stock and outflow of materials in Dutch wind energy. Inflows or demand for materials is increasing rapidly due to strong expected growth in the near future (2023), additional inflows are required after 2030 for stock maintenance. Outflows fluctuate, partly due to an early peak in onshore decommissioning and late peak in offshore decommissioning caused by a more mature stock of onshore wind turbines and currently developing stock of offshore wind turbines. The outflow of scrap materials is used to determine secondary materials through various recycling routes. For steel, iron, aluminium and copper minor processing losses occur as materials oxidize or get lost to slag. Due to partial removal of monopiles, a hibernating stock is expected for structural steel that increases towards 0.5 Mt in 2050. Current steel and iron recycling results in dilution and therefore loss of function of valuable and critical alloying elements. Composite waste management in wind energy is a major challenge as closed-loop recycling of composites is not feasible. The cascading effect of material quality results in low-value materials, with varying potential demand. Repurposing of blade segments requires minimal processing and could be implemented at present, provided that there is enough demand for composite sheet and beam segments. Cement co-processing uses existing cement production infrastructure and could be implemented at present, with ample demand for cement clinker. Dutch wind energy could exclusively provide sufficient composite scrap material to run industrial-scale mechanical grinding after 2030 and pyrolysis facilities after 2040. Critical materials include vanadium in gear steel alloys, magnesium in cast iron and rare earth elements in permanent magnets. These critical materials are subject to high economic importance and supply risk. Secondary supply through recycling can mitigate this criticality. Vanadium in gearbox steel and magnesium in cast iron can be functionally recycled by selective collection within existing recycling infrastructure for specialty steels. It is estimated that with maximum recycling efforts, secondary supply of critical materials can meet up to ~15% of REE, ~30 of V and ~25% of Mg demand by 2050. Dutch wind energy will not provide sufficient scrap magnet material for an industrial size recycling facility dedicated to magnet or REE recovery before 2050.
By determining the potential for material recovery from Dutch wind energy, a timeline is created for potential implementation of domestic recycling and secondary material availability. This is a first step towards circularity goals in 2050 and is intended to provide a sense of scale and timing for material demand, secondary supply and required recycling infrastructure for Dutch wind energy.

The meaning of what a sustainable fish food product demands can differ among the stakeholders who are knowledgeable in the product system. This thesis applies methods and tools from the field of industrial ecology to understand what sustainability means when it comes to a pelagic fish product from the Northeast Atlantic. The study covers a need of the company Cornelis Vrolijk to evaluate their environmental performance. An LCA study is performed on four of their products: blue whiting, herring, mackerel and horse mackerel. Besides hotspot identification, the practicality of the suggested improvements proposed is analysed by looking at the case of fuel sustainable procurement. Lastly, sustainability indicators for the company´s CSR are proposed. The LCA study is conducted in team, with other industrial ecology master student. The study took place from February to August 2017.

If Genetic Modification is to be accepted as a sustainable technological development its social, ecological and economical impacts must be understood.
One important tool in determining the environmental and human risks of a technological development such as Genetical Modification (GM), is the Quantitative Risk Analysis (QRA). QRA can quantify the risks of a new technology, so that the society can make a choice whether the benefits outweigh the risks. Only if the risk of a new technological development is very small and acceptable, can it be sustainable. One of the main risks from GMOs is the spread of their genes through Gene Flow into wild populations causing genetic pollution and potentially ecosystem disruption. The current QRA is based on mass flow models. It does not consider the fact that law of conservation of mass does not hold for genes, which are essentially information. QRA also dos not take the imbedded open feedback loops present in life forms, i.e. the ability to self-amplify and reproduce, into consideration. Because of these shortcomings, the current risk assessment tools are probably inadequate to answer the question whether Genetic Modification is a sustainable technological development. Next to the lack of scientific knowledge about the impacts, there is a lack of societal acceptance of GM. Part of the reason for the lack of acceptance is the unacceptability of the tools for risk prediction. There is a need for a risk analysis tool that is both acceptable and able to describe key aspects of life. Agent Based Models (ABMs) are a candidate modeling framework for such a tool because they are isomorphic to living organisms. Furthemore, they are intuitive and easy to understand, forming a basis for societal acceptance. By defining evolutionary processes and plant entities in Agent terms an Agent Based Model called GeneScape has been developed. The model explicitly describes Plants as entities with states and interactions. Plants populate a geometry, the Field, through which the environment, The World, enforces the rules for pollen distribution, mating and genetic inheritance. The World also determines how the information content of the plant, its genome, is to be translated into a fitness, and thus power to reproduce. While there is a shortage of good experimental data for validation, GeneScape is evaluated and found to be coherent and biologically sound. It is however not a quantitative prediction tool for Gene Flow, but an explicitand graphical representation of the mental models of Darwinian selection, Gene Flow and plant ecology. Its strength lies in the fact that it allows
the visualization of thought experiments on the behavior of GMO crops and the neighboring plant populations. It can serve as a basis for further development of a tool for risk assessment for GMOs. GeneScape can only be useful for answering questions about the sustainability of Genetic Modification if it is socially acceptable itself. Therefore, a societal acceptance hypothesis is formulated. The hypothesis states that GeneScape is not yet societally acceptable because it is too complex and the outcomes are open to interpretation. However, it is easily understandable and illustrative, which forms a basis for acceptance. The most important conclusion from the use of GeneScape is the insightinto the importance of the environment a GMO gene is placed in. The most important variables governing Gene Flow (Pollen spread distance, fitness increase by the GMO gene and the relatedness level of the urrounding populations) are dependent on environmental factors. Since the environment can not be controlled Genetically Modified Organisms can only be sustainable in a closed, controlled environment.