For reaching the 2 °C climate target, the robust growth of electricity generation from variable renewable energy sources (VRE) in the power sector is expected to continue. Accommodation of the power system to the variable, uncertain and locational-dependent outputs of VRE causes integration costs. Integrating VRE into a well-functioning electricity market can minimize integration costs and drive investments in VRE and complementary flexible resources. However, the electricity market in the European Union (EU), as currently designed, seems incapable to deliver this end. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive literature review of barriers to the large-scale market integration of VRE in the EU electricity market design. Based on the set-up of the EU electricity market, a framework was developed to incorporate the most pertinent market integration barriers and resulting market inefficiencies. This paper concludes that an overhaul is needed for the current EU electricity market to address all barriers identified. Firstly, a discrete auction intraday market, a marginal pricing balancing market, a two-price imbalance settlement and a nodal pricing locational marginal pricing mechanism seem more promising in limiting integration costs. Secondly, to support business cases of VRE and complementary flexible resources in the electricity market, a level playing field should be established and the price cap should be lifted up to the value of lost load (VOLL). Meanwhile, to fit VRE's market participation, a higher time resolution of trading products and later gate closure time in different submarkets would be required. Lastly, feed-in support schemes currently widely used for VRE investments might be inconsistent with market integration, as they increase integration costs and lock VRE investments in a subsidy-dependent pathway. To avoid such lock-in, further investigation of alternative capacity-based support schemes is recommended.@en

According to the European Union Third Energy Market package, the roll-out of smart meters in the residential sector can presumably play a key role in reaching the goals of sustainability strategies. However, the deployment of smart meters alone does not necessarily drive residential customers to use energy in a more sustainable manner. Therefore, more attention should be paid to customers energy behavior in order to reach the objectives of the roll-out policy. In this study, we propose an interdisciplinary framework that establishes a behavioral model to identify the main energy-related behavior change requirements necessary to engage residential customers in energy applications. To fulfill the requirements, we first present the technical system architecture that enables energy applications for residential customers. Then, we assess how gamification, which is the employment of game design elements in non-game contexts, can be used to enhance energy applications by driving customer engagement and energy-related behavior change. To do that, the most relevant game design elements are discussed and classified. After that, the expected value streams from using a gamification-based solution for different stakeholders in the energy market are identified. Finally, the study discusses the potential of the proposed framework in different energy applications for residential customers.@en

Consumption of meat is an important source of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emission and deep decarbonisation of the whole meat production chain is required to be able to meet global climate change (CC) mitigation goals. Emissions happen in different stages of meat production ranging from agricultural input production, feed production, livestock production to slaughtering, meat processing, and retail. An overview of direct emissions from processes in the meat sector themselves and indirect emissions from energy consumptions would provide a clearer picture for potential CC impact reduction. This paper explores the total GHG emissions and data availability within the meat sector of the pig, chicken, and cattle meat product system. Through statistical data provided by FAOSTAT and supplementary data from literature, the CC impacts of energy use and process GHG emissions in the pig, chicken and cattle meat life cycle are estimated. Cattle dominates, but pig and chicken meat have a sizable amount of GHG emissions with a relatively high contribution from agricultural inputs and post-farm processes. However, uncertainty and unavailability of data are large for the energy consumption, direct GHG emissions, and product flows of post-farm and agricultural input processes. In order to gain a more complete understanding of the total CC impacts of the meat sector, further research is necessary to reduce the uncertainty in the considered life cycle stages and to quantify the processes and meat products that have been excluded from this study.@en

Power generation from intermittent renewable energy sources in northwest Europe is expected to increase significantly in the next 20 years. This reduces the predictability of electricity generation and increases the need for flexibility in electricity demand. Data on demand response (DR) capacities of large electricity consumers is limited for most countries. Steel production processes are among the industrial processes with the highest DR potentials. In this study, we focus on DR options provided by changing the electricity generation rate at Tata Steel in IJmuiden (which produces 3 % of total electricity consumption in the Netherlands). For evaluating the technical DR potential we have developed a linear programming model in MATLAB. The model calculates the optimal allocation of works arising gases of Tata Steel in IJmuiden in case of a call for emergency balancing power. The optimization is done subject to the technical constraints of the distribution system and storage potential of the works arising gases, the demand of the Tata Steel plants for these gases, and the ramp-up rate of the power plant that runs on these gases. Results show that Tata Steel in IJmuiden can supply 10 MW for two Programme Time Units (i.e. PTU is defined as a 15 minute period in the Netherlands by TenneT) of positive DR capacity with an availability rate of 97 %. This is not enough for participating in the current emergency capacity programs in the Netherlands, which require at least 20 MW for longer than 1 PTU. Tata Steel can provide 20 MW DR capacity with an availability rate of 65 %. Therefore, if the availability rate requirements for emergency balancing programs in the Netherlands do not drop, Tata Steel would need to pool with other suppliers in order to participate in such programs. The negative demand response potential of Tata Steel in IJmuiden is found to be 20 MW supplied for 3 PTUs and 4 PTU with doubling of blast furnace gas storage capacities.@en

This paper provides a method to identify drivers, barriers and synergies (DBS) related to the deployment of a CO2 pipeline network. The method was demonstrated for the West Mediterranean region (WMR) (i.e. Spain, Portugal and Morocco). The method comprises a literature review, analysis of embedded pipeline trajectories, interviews with experts, and workshops with stakeholders. Subsequently, the collected information was used to identify route specific DBS in several CO2 pipeline network deployment scenarios that were modeled for the WMR. Most identified DBS apply to CO2 pipeline transport in general. The barriers (e.g. technical knowledge gaps, outstanding legislative issues, lack of financial incentive) can in principle be tackled to make the design, construction and operation of a CO2 pipeline network possible, but could sometimes lead to somewhat higher costs. Furthermore, there are also facilitating processes (e.g. experience with CO2 pipeline transport for EOR). Cost benefits due to pipeline oversizing were identified as a route specific driver, whereas crossings of mountains, water and nature areas are route specific barriers. Installing CO2 pipelines along natural gas pipelines could be either a route specific synergy or barrier, depending on site conditions. Finally, several key measures were proposed to enable CO2 pipeline networks in the future.@en

Future power systems will require large shares of low-carbon generators such as renewables and power plants with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) to keep global warming below 2. °C. Intermittent renewables increase the system-wide demand for flexibility and affect the operation of thermal power plants. We investigate the operation of future power plants by first composing a comprehensive overview of the operational flexibility of current and future power plants. Next, a combined long-term optimization and hourly simulation is performed with the soft-linked MARKAL-NL-UU and REPOWERS models for The Netherlands in 2030 and 2050. We quantify and compare the technical and economic performance of power plants for four distinctly different future scenarios. We find that future low-carbon power systems will have large shares of intermittent renewable sources (19-42%) and also a 2-38% higher variability in residual load compared to the Baseline scenario. Hence, power plant operation will be more variable, which reduces their efficiency by 0.6-1.6% compared to the full-load efficiency. Enough flexibility is present in future power systems to accommodate renewables, due to advances in power plant flexibility and interconnectors. As a result, generators with CCS have a large market share (23-64% of power generated). Moreover, the current energy-based market model generates insufficient revenues: the price received per MWh covers only 84% (±30%) of the total generation costs per MWh of 77. €/MWh (±12€). This will discourage new investments in generation capacity and reduce power system adequacy. New or additional market designs may be required to ensure system adequacy in future power systems.@en

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a potential key-technology to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as its use can lead to lower mitigation cost. However, research on other economic impacts of using CCS is scarce. In this paper, we look into economic upstream impacts of CCS use in terms of employment, Gross Value Added (GVA) and import dependency on the macro- and sector-level in Western Europe. We determine these impacts by a static comparison of two scenarios of power production with and without CCS (differences in energy efficiency investments between these scenarios were not accounted for). The two scenarios, both representing a stringent climate policy regime, were produced with the energy-system-simulation-model (TIMER) following the same emission profile until 2050. Data from the two scenarios were respectively implemented into a projected version of a global-multiregional IO-Model (EXIOBASE). Macro-level results suggest slightly higher gross employment, but lower Gross Value Added (GVA) (by 25%), and higher import dependency in the CCS-including scenario compared to the CCS-excluding scenario, given that biomass with CCS (BECCS) is available. Sector-level results show disproportionally higher differences between the scenarios in GVA and employment for some sectors compared to other sectors. Particularly, sectors providing fuels (here mostly bio-energy) have significantly higher GVA and employment in the CCS scenario. This study thus reveals interesting upstream economic effects, which can be linked to the technology choice. However, the exact quantitative results depend strongly on model assumptions. Results therefore need to be further explored in other models.@en

As part of large scale application of CO2 capture and storage, million tons CO2 per year have to be transported by pipelines and/or vessels from capture to storage sites. In previous studies, costs of, pipeline systems and point-to-point vessel connections have been estimated. In this research, these cost analysis are supplemented by adding a transport system combining vessel and pipeline transport. The cost savings potential of this multimodal CO2 transport system has been analyzed for the West Mediterranean region (i.e. Spain, Portugal, and Morocco) - where vessel transport can play an important role. In detail: A multimodal extended adaption of a pipeline system optimization model has been defined and was then parameterized adapting a nonlinear vessel and pipeline transport cost model. Next, cost savings due to vessel transport were quantified for the West Mediterranean region. When CO2 emissions are stored in the region itself, cost could be lowered by up to 20% on routes with low transport volumes and in a complementary way by a redirection of flows at the expense of longer transport distances to prevent costly offshore storage. In case of a European CO2 transport infrastructure including North Sea storage, transport of CO2 by vessel could be profitable if CO2 is used for enhanced oil recovery (EOR). However, North Sea neighboring countries can be expected to crowd out Iberian CO2 of the market for EOR storage volumes.@en

The application of CO2 capture and storage at industrial scales requires the development of a transport infrastructure which is suitable to transport millions of tons of CO2 per year. Important offshore storage sites could be served by pipelines or vessels. The discrimination between these options is a crucial scientific task for the assessment of the potential of CCS and the design of a CO2 transport infrastructure. In this research the analysis of vessel transport cost is refined by the optimization of vessel size in a fleet scheduling context. A cost model for a point-to-point CO2 transport by vessel that includes liquefaction, intermediate storage, loading, vessel/fleet construction and storage has been derived from a comprehensive literature survey and has been optimized for vessel capacity. The cost savings potential of the optimization can reach up to 40%. A reliable cost estimation should therefore carefully account for the dimensioning of the vessels. The optimized vessel transport option was then compared to pipeline transport connections to offshore storage sites. In a compact graphical presentation it is shown that vessel transport can be advantageous compared to pipeline transport for long distances and small volumes. The breakeven distance of vessel transport becomes up to 40% greater due to optimized vessel size. The cost models were then applied to find the cost effective transport mode for a connection of the West Mediterranean region1 The term “West Mediterranean” is used for the description of the region including Spain, Portugal and Morocco. Even though Portugal does not border the Mediterranean Sea, it is usually included in Mediterranean organizations. (i.e. Spain, Portugal, and Morocco) to a European CO2 transport infrastructure including the North Sea. Transport of CO2 by vessel turns out to be cost-effective and could be profitable if CO2 is used for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR).@en

The costs of intermittent renewable energy systems (IRES) and power storage technologies are compared on a level playing field to those of natural gas combined cycle power plants with CO2 capture and storage (NGCC-CCS). To account for technological progress over time, an "experience curve" approach is used to project future levelised costs of electricity (LCOE) based on technology progress ratios and deployment rates in worldwide energy scenarios, together with European energy and technology cost estimates. Under base case assumptions, the LCOE in 2040 for baseload NGCC-CCS plants is estimated to be 71 €2012/MWh. In contrast, the LCOE for electricity generated intermittently from IRES is estimated at 68, 82, and 104 €2012/MWh for concentrated solar power, offshore wind, and photovoltaic systems, respectively. Considering uncertainties in costs, deployment rates and geographical conditions, LCOE ranges for IRES are wider than for NGCC-CCS. We also assess energy storage technologies versus NGCC-CCS as backup options for IRES. Here, for base case assumptions NGCC-CCS with an LCOE of 90 €2012/MWh in 2040 is more costly than pumped hydro storage (PHS) or compressed air and energy storage (CAES) with LCOEs of 57 and 88 €2012/MWh, respectively. Projected costs for battery backup are 78, 149, and 321 €2012/MWh for Zn-Br, ZEBRA, and Li-ion battery systems, respectively. Finally, we compare four stylised low-carbon systems on a common basis (including all ancillary costs for IRES). In the 2040 base case, the system employing only NGCC-CCS has the lowest LCOE and lowest cost of CO2 avoided with CO2 emissions of 45 kg/MWh. A zero CO2 emission system with IRES plus PHS as backup is 42% more expensive in terms of LCOE, and 13% more costly than a system with IRES plus NGCC-CCS backup with emissions of 23 kg CO2/MWh. Sensitivity results and study limitations are fully discussed within the paper.@en

This study developed a method to assess the techno-economic performance and spatial footprint of CO2 capture infrastructure configurations in industrial zones. The method has been successfully applied to a cluster of sixteen industrial plants in the Dutch industrial Botlek area (7.1MtCO2/y) for 2020-2030. The configurations differ inter alia regarding capture technology (post-, pre-, oxyfuel combustion) and location of capture components (centralized vs. plant site). Results indicate that oxyfuel combustion with centralized oxygen production and decentralized CO2 compression is the most cost effective and realistic configuration when applying CO2 capture to all industrial plants (61€/tCO2; 5.8MtCO2/y avoided), mainly due to relatively low energy costs compared to post- and pre-combustion. However, oxyfuel combustion at plant level is economically preferable when capturing CO2 from only the three largest industrial plants. For post-combustion, a separated absorber-stripper configuration (73€/tCO2; 7.1MtCO2/y avoided) is preferable from a cost perspective, due to economic scale effects of capture equipment. The optimal pre-combustion configuration shows a slightly less favorable performance (81€/tCO2; 4.4MtCO2/y avoided). Whereas many industrial plants have insufficient space available for capture equipment, centralized/hybrid configurations show no insurmountable space issues. The deployment of the most favorable configurations is addressed in Part B.@en

This paper presents results of potential CCS infrastructures in the West Mediterranean region including trajectories for CO₂ pipelines. The preliminary results are generated with a combination of geographical (GIS) and partial equilibrium optimization modelling (MARKAL/TIMES-COMET). Furthermore, as a result of active stakeholder involvement in the research project, the CCS infrastructures were critically reviewed and obtained insights were used to improve the models and their input parameters. Stakeholderś feedback regarding difficulty in crossing hard rock terrains and the reasonability of trying to replicate the existing natural gas network, had a large impact on the resulting CCS infrastructure.

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Transport and storage of CO₂ are the elements in the CCS chain with the lowest cost, but they may well prove to be the elements defining the timeline for CCS development. The EU FP7 COMET project aimed to pave the road towards CCS development in the West Mediterranean (Portugal, Spain and Morocco). This paper provides the main highlights of the work conducted within COMET. The project addressed the temporal and spatial aspects of the development of the energy sector and other industrial activities in relation with CCS and its participation to CO₂ emission reduction taking into account location, capacity and availability of CO₂ sources and of potential CO ₂ storage formations. Special attention was given to a balanced optimization on transport modes, matching the sources and sinks, meeting optimal cost - benefit trade-offs, for a CCS network infrastructure as part of an international cooperation policy.

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Large potentials for CO₂ storage were demonstrated in previous studies in Brazil. This study aims to estimate the CO₂ storage capacity in the Campos Basin's oil fields, Southeast Brazil, in order to provide refined values to support CCS planning in the country. The results, based on field/reservoir level data show that there is a large potential for CO ₂ storage (ca. 950Mt) in the 17 assessed oil fields in the basin, and 75% of this storage capacity is found in sandstone reservoirs.

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Reaching the long term goals of climate policies requires the implementation of a portfolio of measures. This paper quantifies the potentials of energy efficiency technologies and CO₂ capture and storage (CCS) for seven Dutch industry sectors between 2008 and 2040. Economically viable energy efficiency technologies offer carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission reduction potentials of 25±8% in 2040 compared to 1990 levels. Economically viable CCS options can raise the industry's total emission reductions to 39-47%. These potentials require abatement costs above 90 € (Euro) per tonne CO₂, but they are still not sufficient to reach European Union's long term emission reduction plans. While economically viable potentials of improving energy efficiency may exist in all sectors (energy efficiency improvements of 2% per annum (p.a.)), attractive CCS potentials exist in the fertilizer, basic metal and refinery sectors with abatement costs estimated at 25-120 €/t CO₂ for 2040. Implementing CCS in these sectors would reduce total industry's primary energy efficiency improvement rates from 2% to 1.6% p.a. and would increase total industrial energy use by at least 10%. Reaching higher emission reductions in the Dutch industry will require the implementation of a portfolio of measures including energy and materials efficiency, renewables and CCS.

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The potential scale of carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) under long-term decarbonisation scenarios means that analysis on the contribution of large international CO₂ storage reservoirs is critical. This paper compares the potentially key role of CCS within cost-optimizing energy systems modelling at the national level (ensuring country-specific technical, economic and policy detail), and the regional level (ensuring transboundary electricity and CO₂ trade). Analysis at alternate model scales investigates the full range of drivers on the feasibility and trade-offs in using the Utsira formation as a common North Sea CO₂ storage resource. A robust finding is that low carbon electricity is a primary decarbonisation pathway and that CCS plays a key role (32-40%) within this portfolio. This paper confirms that the overall driver of the amount of CCS utilized is the climate policy, with by 2050 a total of 475-570MtCO₂ captured and stored (of which 110-120MtCO₂ is stored in Utsira) under an 80% CO₂ reduction target. Modelled country differences are much larger due to specific national policies and to regional (EU) commodity trading. From 2030 onwards, Utsira plays a key role within the CO₂ storage cost curve, with the Netherlands and the UK being the largest contributors, followed by transboundary flows of CO₂ from other countries. However, overall regional CCS flows may be larger (for example under low fossil fuel prices) than the estimated (and uncertain) maximum annual injection rates into Utsira which could potentially represent a significant constraint.

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Mega structures for CO2 storage, such as the Utsira formation in the North Sea, could theoretically supply CO2 storage capacity for several countries for a period of several decades. Their use could increase the cost-effectiveness of CCS in a region while minimizing opposition from the public to CO2 storage. However, this will not only depend on their potential available capacity to store CO2 flows but also on the cost effectiveness of such an option within national portfolios of mitigation measures. This article shows key results of a research project aiming to assess the potentials and costs of storing CO2 in the Utsira formation for the time period 2015-2050. Countries included in the analysis are Denmark, Germany, Norway, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. The starting point of the analysis are the national MARKAL and TIMES models developed for each country together with the 27 region Pan European TIMES model (PET). In the models scenarios, assumptions and parameters that are not country dependent (e.g. costs related with CO2 capture technology development) have been harmonized. The results indicate that with stringent climate targets, CCS appears as a key mitigation option in the national portfolio of measures. Within the CCS portfolio, storage of CO2 in the Utsira formation can indeed be a cost effective option for North Europe and it represents a valuable CO2 storage option at the regional level. For instance, the United Kingdom will profit from the comparably short transport distance to Utsira while the Netherlands utilise the Utsira formation due to limited domestic low cost storage fields and the use of the country as a regional hub for CO2. In Germany and Denmark, the competitiveness of CO2 storage in Utsira is determined by the availability of domestic onshore saline aquifers. If these aquifers are not used, Utsira gains as competitive storage option. The main limitation for the common use of the Utsira formation appears, from a modeling point of view, to be the maximum annual injection rate for CO2 that has been assumed in the project (150 Mt CO2/yr).@en

Large-scale deployment of carbon capture and storage needs a dedicated infrastructure. Planning and designing of this infrastructure require incorporation of both temporal and spatial aspects. In this study, a toolbox has been developed that integrates ArcGIS, a geographical information system with spatial and routing functions, and MARKAL, an energy bottom-up model based on linear optimization. Application of this toolbox led to blueprints of a CO₂ infrastructure in the Netherlands. The results show that in a scenario with 20% and 50% CO₂ emissions reduction targets compared to their 1990 level in respectively 2020 and 2050, an infrastructure of around 600 km of CO₂ trunklines may need to be built before 2020. Investment costs for the pipeline construction and the storage site development amount to around 720 m€ and 340 m€, respectively. The results also show the implication of policy choices such as allowing or prohibiting CO₂ storage onshore on CO₂ Capture and Storage (CCS) and infrastructure development. This paper illustrates how the ArcGIS/MARKAL-based toolbox can provide insights into a CCS infrastructure development, and support policy makers by giving concrete blueprints over time with respect to scale, pipeline trajectories, and deployment of individual storage sites.

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This study provides insight into the feasibility of a CO₂ trunkline from the Netherlands to the Utsira formation in the Norwegian part of the North Sea, which is a large geological storage reservoir for CO₂. The feasibility is investigated in competition with CO₂ storage in onshore and near-offshore sinks in the Netherlands. Least-cost modelling with a MARKAL model in combination with ArcGIS was used to assess the cost-effectiveness of the trunkline as part of a Dutch greenhouse gas emission reduction strategy for the Dutch electricity sector and CO₂ intensive industry. The results show that under the condition that a CO₂ permit price increases from €25 per tCO₂ in 2010 to €60 per tCO₂ in 2030, and remains at this level up to 2050, CO₂ emissions in the Netherlands could reduce with 67% in 2050 compared to 1990, and investment in the Utsira trunkline may be cost-effective from 2020-2030 provided that Belgian and German CO₂ is transported and stored via the Netherlands as well. In this case, by 2050 more than 2.1 GtCO₂ would have been transported from the Netherlands to the Utsira formation. However, if the Utsira trunkline is not used for transportation of CO₂ from Belgium and Germany, it may become cost-effective 10 years later, and less than 1.3 GtCO₂ from the Netherlands would have been stored in the Utsira formation by 2050. On the short term, CO₂ storage in Dutch fields appears more cost-effective than in the Utsira formation, but as yet there are major uncertainties related to the timing and effective exploitation of the Dutch offshore storage opportunities.

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Large-scale implementation of carbon capture and storage needs a whole new infrastructure to transport and store CO₂. Tools that can support planning and designing of such infrastructure require incorporation of both temporal and spatial aspects. Therefore, a toolbox that integrates ArcGIS, a geographical information system with elaborate spatial and routing functions, and MARKAL, an energy bottom-up model based on linear opt imization has been developed. Application of this toolbox for devising blueprint s of a CO₂ infrastructure in the Netherlands, shows that early knowledge on the availability, potential, and suitability of sinks is of major importance for a cost-effective design of the infrastructure.

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