Hydrogen is a promising energy carrier for a low-carbon future energy system, as it can be stored on a megaton scale (equivalent to TWh of energy) in subsurface reservoirs. However, safe and efficient underground hydrogen storage requires a thorough understanding of the geomechanics of the host rock under fluid pressure fluctuations. In this context, we summarize the current state of knowledge regarding geomechanics relevant to carbon dioxide and natural gas storage in salt caverns and depleted reservoirs. We further elaborate on how this knowledge can be applied to underground hydrogen storage. The primary focus lies on the mechanical response of rocks under cyclic hydrogen injection and production, fault reactivation, the impact of hydrogen on rock properties, and other associated risks and challenges. In addition, we discuss wellbore integrity from the perspective of underground hydrogen storage. The paper provides insights into the history of energy storage, laboratory scale experiments, and analytical and simulation studies at the field scale. We also emphasize the current knowledge gaps and the necessity to enhance our understanding of the geomechanical aspects of hydrogen storage. This involves developing predictive models coupled with laboratory scale and field-scale testing, along with benchmarking methodologies.

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Successful transition to renewable energy supply depends on the development of cost-effective large-scale energy storage technologies. Renewable energy can be converted to (or produced directly in the form of) green gases, such as hydrogen. Subsurface formations offer feasible solutions to store large-scale compressed hydrogen. These reservoirs act as seasonal storage or buffer to guarantee a reliable supply of green energy in the network. The vital ingredients that need to be considered for safe and efficient underground hydrogen storage include reliable estimations of the in-situ state of the stress, especially to avoid failure, induced seismicity and surface subsidence (or uplift). Geological formations are often highly heterogeneous over their large (km) length scales, and entail complex nonlinear rock deformation physics, especially under cyclic loading. We develop a multiscale simulation strategy to address these challenges and allow for efficient, yet accurate, simulation of nonlinear elastoplastic deformation of rocks under cyclic loading. A coarse-scale system is constructed for the given fine-scale detailed nonlinear deformation model. The multiscale method is developed algebraically to allow for convenient uncertainty quantifications and sensitivity analyses.

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Considering the storage capacity and already existing infrastructures, underground porous reservoirs are highly suitable to store green energy, for example, in the form of green gases such as hydrogen and compressed air. Depending on the energy demand and supply, the energy-rich fluids are injected and produced, which induces cyclic change of state-of-the-stress in the reservoir and its surrounding. Detailed analyses of the geo-mechanical deformations under variable storage conditions i.e., storage frequency and fluid fluctuating pressures, are crucially important for safe and efficient operations. The present work presents an integrated analysis, based on experimental and constitutive modeling aspects, to investigate sandstones’ geomechanical response to cyclic loading relevant to underground energy storage (UES). To this end, sandstone rock samples were subjected to cyclic loading above and below the onset of dilatant cracking under different frequencies and loading amplitudes. Axial strains and Acoustic Emissions (AE) were measured in both regimes to quantify the total deformation (strain) of the rock and its AE characteristics. It is found that the inelastic strain and number of AE events is the highest in the first cycle and reduce subsequently cycle after cycle. Moreover, cyclic inelastic deformations are affected by the mean stress, amplitude, and frequency of the stress waveform. On the one hand, the higher the mean stress and the amplitude, the higher the total inelastic strains. On the other hand, the lower the frequency, the higher the total inelastic strain. From the modeling perspectives, five types of deformation mechanisms were identified based on the governing physics: elastic, viscoelastic, compaction-based cyclic inelastic, inelastic brittle creep, and dilatation-based inelastic deformation. To model elastic, viscoelastic, and brittle creep, the Nishihara model was used. A cyclic modified cam clay model (MCC) and hardening–softening model were applied to capture plastic deformation. The results show a very good fit of the constitutive model with the experimental results, which could help in studying the response of reservoirs to injection and production.

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Subsurface flow simulation is vital for many geoscience applications, including geoenergy extraction and gas (energy) storage. Reservoirs are often highly heterogeneous and naturally fractured. Therefore, scalable simulation strategies are crucial to enable efficient and reliable operational strategies. One of these scalable methods, which has also been recently deployed in commercial reservoir simulators, is algebraic multiscale (AMS) solvers. AMS, like all multilevel schemes, is found to be highly sensitive to the types (geometries and size) of coarse grids and local basis functions. Commercial simulators benefit from a graph-based partitioner; e.g., METIS to generate the multiscale coarse grids. METIS minimizes the amount of interfaces between coarse partitions, while keeping them of similar size which may not be the requirement to create a coarse grid. In this work, we employ a novel approach to generate the multiscale coarse grids, using unsupervised learning methods which is based on optimizing different parameter. We specifically use the Louvain algorithm and Multi-level Markov clustering. The Louvain algorithm optimizes modularity, a measure of the strength of network division while Markov clustering simulates random walks between the cells to find clusters. It is found that the AMS performance is improved when compared with the existing METIS-based partitioner on several field-scale test cases. This development has the potential to enable reservoir engineers to run ensembles of thousands of detailed models at a much faster rate.

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With the rise of renewable energy and the drive to achieve net-zero emissions, energy storage has become a crucial component of the energy sector to address the challenges of intermittency. The vast subsurface environment offers significant storage potential, capable of accommodating terawatt-hour (TWh) capacities. One approach to leverage this storage capacity involves converting renewable energy into hydrogen and storing it underground within salt caverns and depleted porous reservoirs. This stored hydrogen can then be utilized as needed. However, this cyclic injection and production of hydrogen will exert repeated stress on the subsurface, resulting in periodic changes in pressure. One critical aspect that requires investigation for the safe storage of hydrogen (H2) is the field of geomechanics, which becomes essential in both salt caverns and depleted reservoirs. To gain a better understanding of this, a comprehensive review of the geomechanics involved in underground hydrogen storage was conducted to examine existing knowledge and identify research gaps. To delve deeper into the influence of geomechanics, particularly regarding the inelastic creep deformation of rocks in salt caverns and depleted porous reservoirs, numerical simulations were employed. Given the potential costliness of fine-scale simulations, multiscale simulations were carried out using algebraic multiscale methods. Constitutive models were utilized to analyze deformation patterns in and around the reservoir, assessing their impact on subsidence or uplift. In order to further comprehend the effects of cyclic loading on rocks, constitutive models were developed based on extensive experimental data obtained from sandstone rocks subjected to long-term stress conditions. These models aided in uncovering the underlying physics of rock behavior when exposed to different stress regimes during prolonged cyclic loading. Subsequently, these models were integrated into finite element method (FEM) simulations to observe their impact on field-scale scenarios, with a synthetic Bergermeer case study serving as an example. To enhance the computational efficiency of multiscale methods, unsupervised machine learning techniques were applied to optimize the formation of computational grids, utilizing graph theory techniques such as Louvain and random walk algorithms. These optimized grids were then compared with the grids generated from METIS to evaluate the computational performance of pressure solvers in a commercial scale simulator.@en

Underground energy storage (UES) in porous and cavity reservoirs can be used to balance the mismatch between the production and demand of renewable energy. Understanding the geomechanical behaviour of these reservoirs under different storage conditions, i.e., storage frequency and fluid pressure, is key in defining their capacity and effective lifetime. This work presents an analysis performed on sandstones to unravel their geomechanical response under cyclic loading. It includes, importantly, both experimental and numerical investigations under deviatoric stress conditions below the rock dilatant cracking threshold. From the experimental point of view, axial strains and acoustic emissions indicated that inelastic strains accumulated cycle after cycle, following a decreasing rate per cycle. Four types of deformations were interpreted: elastic, viscoelastic, plastic, and cyclic-plastic. Based on these experimental results and observations, the Modified Cam-clay model was extended to account for cyclic plastic deformations and the Kelvin-Voigt model was used to model visco-elasticity. This approach can be used to study cyclic sandstone deformation’s implications on subsidence, fault reactivation, and cap rock flexure, among other physical phenomena impacting a reservoir’s storage capacity.@en

Subsurface geological formations can be utilized to safely store large-scale (TWh) renewable energy in the form of green gases such as hydrogen. Successful implementation of this technology involves estimating feasible storage sites, including rigorous mechanical safety analyses. Geological formations are often highly heterogeneous and entail complex nonlinear inelastic rock deformation physics when utilized for cyclic energy storage. In this work, we present a novel scalable computational framework to analyse the impact of nonlinear deformation of porous reservoirs under cyclic loading. The proposed methodology includes three different time-dependent nonlinear constitutive models to appropriately describe the behavior of sandstone, shale rock and salt rock. These constitutive models are studied and benchmarked against both numerical and experimental results in the literature. An implicit time-integration scheme is developed to preserve the stability of the simulation. In order to ensure its scalability, the numerical strategy adopts a multiscale finite element formulation, in which coarse scale systems with locally-computed basis functions are constructed and solved. Further, the effect of heterogeneity on the results and estimation of deformation is analyzed. Lastly, the Bergermeer test case—an active Dutch natural gas storage field—is studied to investigate the influence of inelastic deformation on the uplift caused by cyclic injection and production of gas. The present study shows acceptable subsidence predictions in this field-scale test, once the properties of the finite element representative elementary volumes are tuned with the experimental data.

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Subsurface geological formations provide giant capacities for large-scale (TWh) storage of renewable energy, once this energy (e.g. from solar and wind power plants) is converted to green gases, e.g. hydrogen. The critical aspects of developing this technology to full-scale will involve estimation of storage capacity, safety, and efficiency of a subsurface formation. Geological formations are often highly heterogeneous and, when utilized for cyclic energy storage, entail complex nonlinear rock deformation physics. In this work, we present a novel computational framework to study rock deformation under cyclic loading, in presence of nonlinear time-dependent creep physics. Both classical and relaxation creep methodologies are employed to analyze the variation of the total strain in the specimen over time. Implicit time-integration scheme is employed to preserve numerical stability, due to the nonlinear process. Once the computational framework is consistently defined using finite element method on the fine scale, a multiscale strategy is developed to represent the nonlinear deformation not only at fine but also coarser scales. This is achieved by developing locally computed finite element basis functions at coarse scale. The developed multiscale method also allows for iterative error reduction to any desired level, after being paired with a fine-scale smoother. Numerical test cases are studied to investigate various aspects of the developed computational workflow, from benchmarking with experiments to analysing the impact of nonlinear deformation for a field-scale relevant environment. Results indicate the applicability of the developed multiscale method in order to employ nonlinear physics in their laboratory-based scale of relevance (i.e., fine scale), yet perform field-relevant simulations. The developed simulator is made publicly available at https://gitlab.tudelft.nl/ADMIRE_Public/mechanics.

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A promising option for storing large-scale quantities of green gases (e.g., hydrogen) is in subsurface rock salt caverns. The mechanical performance of salt caverns utilized for long-term subsurface energy storage plays a significant role in long-term stability and serviceability. However, rock salt undergoes non-linear creep deformation due to long-term loading caused by subsurface storage. Salt caverns have complex geometries and the geological domain surrounding salt caverns has a vast amount of material heterogeneity. To safely store gases in caverns, a thorough analysis of the geological domain becomes crucial. To date, few studies have attempted to analyze the influence of geometrical and material heterogeneity on the state of stress in salt caverns subjected to long-term loading. In this work, we present a rigorous and systematic modeling study to quantify the impact of heterogeneity on the deformation of salt caverns and quantify the state of stress around the caverns. A 2D finite element simulator was developed to consistently account for the non-linear creep deformation and also to model tertiary creep. The computational scheme was benchmarked with the already existing experimental study. The impact of cyclic loading on the cavern was studied considering maximum and minimum pressure that depends on lithostatic pressure. The influence of geometric heterogeneity such as irregularly-shaped caverns and material heterogeneity, which involves different elastic and creep properties of the different materials in the geological domain, is rigorously studied and quantified. Moreover, multi-cavern simulations are conducted to investigate the influence of a cavern on the adjacent caverns. An elaborate sensitivity analysis of parameters involved with creep and damage constitutive laws is performed to understand the influence of creep and damage on deformation and stress evolution around the salt cavern configurations. The simulator developed in this work is publicly available at https://gitlab.tudelft.nl/ADMIRE_Public/Salt_Cavern.

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Subsurface geological formations provide giant capacities for large-scale (TWh) storage of renewable energy, once this energy (e.g. from solar and wind power plants) is converted to green gas (e.g. hydrogen and green methane), pressurised or hot fluids. The key aspects of successful development of this technology include estimation of safety and storage capacity for a given formation. Formations are often highly heterogeneous, with complex (nonlinear) transport and material physics. In this work, we present a computational framework for cyclic loading of rock specimens to estimate deformation under nonlinear creep behaviour. Classical creep and relaxation creep are the two methodologies which are modeled to analyse the variation of total strain in the specimen over time. Algebraic multi-scale finite element formulation is then implemented to provide a field-scale relevant computational framework for these nonlinear time-dependent systems. This study indicates that the nonlinear deformation is quite an important aspect of cyclic energy storage in the subsurface formation, and that the proposed multi-scale simulation can provide a field-scale simulation approach to consider this important physics for safety and reliability of the storage projects.

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