Objective: This study tested whether simulator-based training of pilot responses to unexpected or novel events can be improved by including unpredictability and variability in training scenarios. Background: Current regulations allow for highly predictable and invariable training, which may not be sufficient to prepare pilots for unexpected or novel situations in-flight. Training for surprise will become mandatory in the near future. Method: Using an aircraft model largely unfamiliar to the participants, one group of 10 pilots (the unpredictable and variable [U/V] group) practiced responses to controllability issues in a relatively U/V manner. A control group of another 10 pilots practiced the same failures in a highly predictable and invariable manner. After the practice, performance of all pilots was tested in a surprise scenario, in which the pilots had to apply the learned knowledge. To control for surprise habituation and familiarization with the controls, two control tests were included. Results: Whereas the U/V group required more time than the control group to identify failures during the practice, the results indicated superior understanding and performance in the U/V group as compared to the control group in the surprise test. There were no significant differences between the groups in surprise or performance in the control tests. Conclusion: Given the results, we conclude that organizing pilot training in a more U/V way improves transfer of training to unexpected situations in-flight. Application: The outcomes suggest that the inclusion of U/V simulator training scenarios is important when training pilots for unexpected situations.

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Loss of Control In-Flight is the most prevalent cause of fatal accidents in commercial aviation. Surprise and startle are commonly suspected as contributing factors. Aviation authorities recommend to include surprise in training. However, studies indicate current training is in some cases too predictable as variations are brought to a minimum, with a focus on predetermined responses.

This study aims to test if using unpredictability and variety in training better prepares pilots for surprise situations. Toward this end, a flight simulator experiment was designed in which 21 airline pilots, divided over two groups, participated. Each group was provided with a short training containing half an hour of flight time. One group was given a predictable training without variety while the other group was given an unpredictable training with variety. Results show that with minimal impact on the training, performance is better in a surprise scenario related to the training. In a surprise scenario unrelated to the training, no effect was found.

The results suggest that using unpredictability and variety in pilot training improves performance in surprise situations, underlining the need to make pilot training less predictable.