Two piezoelectric series bimorph sensors were embedded below the skin of a NACA 0012 symmetrical airfoil to detect the local state of the boundary layer during wind tunnel testing. Small vanes piercing the airfoil skin were glued onto the bimorphs providing a mechanical coupling to the local mechanical force fluctuations imparted by the local unsteady boundary layer flow. The state of the boundary layer at the sensor sites was varied by changing the angle of attack. The objective of this work was to establish the ability of this sensor concept to accurately distinguish among typical boundary layer states such as attached laminar flow, turbulent flow and separated flow. The output of the sensor was compared to concurrent time-resolved particle image velocimetry measurements, which served as a validation technique. Using the developed sensor response envelope, a single data point time series of the piezo electrical signal was proven to be sufficient to accurately detect the boundary layer state on classical airfoils in the low Reynolds number regime. In projected future applications, single or arrays of bimorph sensors can be used to map the boundary layer of more complex or morphing shape airfoils. The fast response of the sensor can in principle be utilised in closed-loop flow control systems, aimed at drag reduction or lift enhancement.

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This article describes the challenges of integrating smart sensing, actuation, and control concepts into an over-sensed and over-actuated technology integrator. This technology integrator has more control inputs than the expected responses or outputs (over-actuated), and its every state is measured using more than one sensor system (over-sensed). The hardware integration platform is chosen to be a wind tunnel model of a low-speed aircraft wing such that it can be tested in a large university-level wind tunnel. This hardware technology integrator is designed for multiple objectives. The nature of these objectives is aerodynamic, structural, and aeroelastic, or, more specifically; drag reduction, static and dynamics loads control, aeroelastic stability control, and lift control. Enabling technologies, such as morphing, piezoelectric actuation and sensing, and fibre-optic sensing are selected to fulfil the mentioned objectives. The technology integration challenges are morphing, actuation integration, sensor integration, software and data integration, and control system integration. The built demonstrator shows the intended level of technology integration.@en

This paper presents an experimental method to detect in-situ the location of transition on a multi-segmental trailing edge camber morphing wing during synchronous and asynchronous morphing. The wing consists of six independently morphing segments with two of the segments instrumented with eight embedded piezoelectric sensors distributed uniformly along the chord. Using suitable data processing, each of the sensors gives a signal that can be used to determine the state of the boundary layer (laminar, transitional, turbulent) at the location of that sensor. The results showed that synchronous morphing can substantially shift the location of transition, up to 20% of the chord length for angles of attack below 9°. Differences in the location of transition up to 5% are found between the near-root and near-tip segment. Using a dedicated data processing approach, the location of transition could be reconstructed in case of complex asynchronous morphing involving one to five segments. The results show a shift in the location of transition when morphing neighboring segments, but also show that non-neighboring segments have a minimal effect. This sensing method holds significant promise for online advanced morphing control to delay transition and thereby reducing skin friction drag.

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This thesis describes the development, validation and implementation of piezoelectric flow sensors. These sensors are meant to measure flow phenomena such as transition and separation in the boundary layer of an aircraft wing. Such information can be used as input variables to a control loop to push laminar-to-turbulent transition towards the trailing edge of a wing, thereby reducing the overall skin friction drag. The developed sensors are installed in the SmartX wing, which is a morphing wing developed at the Delft University of Technology (TUD).@en

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Polymer-piezoceramic composites have drawn a lot of attention for sensor and energy harvesting applications. Poling such materials can be difficult due to the electric field getting mostly distributed over the low dielectric constant matrix. During this process, the electrical matrix conductivity plays a vital role. This work shows how two different polymer materials, loaded with various piezoelectric ceramic fillers, have very different poling efficiencies simply due to their intrinsic matrix conductivity. It is shown how temperature increases the matrix conductivity, and hence, increases the piezoelectric charge constant of the composites. By choosing the proper matrix material under the proper conditions, piezoelectric composites can be poled at electric fields as low as 2 kV mm^-1, which is identical to that of bulk ceramic fillers. In addition, the matrix conductivity can be altered by aging the composites in a high humidity atmosphere, which can increase the piezoelectric charge constant in similar fashion. This is a simple method to increase the matrix conductivity, and hence the piezoelectric charge constant, without the need to add any conductive fillers into the composites, which increase complexity, and leads to an increased dielectric losses.

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While most of the work on piezoelectric composites focuses on methods to reduce the dielectric constant of the composite (for better sensor and energy harvesting performance), for haptic feedback and actuator applications the opposite is desirable. We present here a study of the effect of adding a second ceramic phase (BaTiO3 nanoparticles) to composites of (K0.5N0.5)1-xLixNbO3 (x = 0.03) in PVDF-TrFE-CFE in order to increase the dielectric constant of the composite. Adding small amounts of these nanoparticles to the composites results in an increase in the dielectric constant and, at high total ceramic loadings, an increase in the density of the composite. Furthermore, while adding larger amounts of nanoparticles leads to agglomeration and reduced densities, it also allows access to higher loadings of ceramic than normally attainable.@en

Vibrational piezoelectric energy harvesters are being investigated to replace batteries in embedded sensor systems. The energy density that can be harvested depends on the figure of merit, d₃₃g₃₃, where d₃₃ and g₃₃ are the piezoelectric charge and voltage coefficient. Commonly used piezoelectric materials are based on inorganic ceramics, such as lead zirconium titanate (PZT), as they exhibit high piezoelectric coefficients. However, ceramics are brittle, leading to mechanical failure under large cyclic strains and, furthermore, PZT is classified as a Substance of Very High Concern (SVHC). To circumvent these drawbacks, we fabricated quasi 1–3 potassium sodium lithium niobate (KNLN) ceramic fibers in a flexible polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) matrix. The fibers were aligned by dielectrophoresis. We demonstrate for the structured composites values of d₃₃g₃₃ approaching 18 pm³ J⁻¹, comparable to that of state-of-the-art ceramic PZT. This relatively high value is due to the reduced inter-particle distance in the direction of the electric field. As a confirmation, the stored electrical energy for both material systems was measured under identical mechanical loading conditions. The similar values for KNLN/PDMS and PZT demonstrate that environmentally friendly, lead-free, mechanically compliant materials can replace state-of-the-art environmentally-less-desirable ceramic materials in piezoelectric vibrational energy harvesters.

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