The 20th century consists of technological improvements and societal changes due to industrialisation and the two World Wars. Architects, urban planners, artists, critics, and other professions sought to create a better future using different themes and available technologies to visualise an ideal city based on their ideals about people’s needs. This research focused on Van den Broek and Bakema’s ideal city and how it emerged over the course of the 20th century. The study investigated how the ideal city developed in their work from 1900 until 1965. The research identified that Van den Broek and Bakema’s ideal city was formed through thoughts and outcomes discussed during meetings within different modernist groups. The period after World War II had a significant influence on how people perceived the world and how the living environment should operate. Van den Broek and Bakema attempted to combine these aspects in creating their ideal city, emphasising the importance of interactions and social communities through transitions between different layers in the living environment to counter individualism. The study also revealed that Van den Broek and Bakema’s approach was in line with the principles of De Stijl, the C.I.A.M., and Team 10 which are discussed during this research.

Being a highly earthquake-prone country, Nepal gets hit by a major earthquake roughly every 80-100 years. The recent major tremor in 2015 showed how the houses in the Kathmandu Valley were not ready: 9000 lives and half a million houses were lost.
This thesis describes the changes in earthquake-resistant elements in the residential architecture of the Kathmandu Valley. By highlighting three time periods: the late-Malla Newar architecture, the Rana architecture and the modern architecture of concrete and corrugated sheets. Through the use of literature research, interviews with reseachers and photography, several changes can be seen throughout recent history. The current thinking is: concrete is strong and safe, older houses are weak. This thesis aims to give space for new perspectives in the prevalent discourse on the earthquake-safety of residential architecture of the Kathmandu.
A couple of conclusion can be drawn. Most importantly, the usage of wood inside masonry has drastically dropped to protect the Nepali forests, but this has impacted the strength and flexibility of walls. Traditional materials and techniques have made place for cheap and readily available materials like concrete. This has added to the loss of knowledge about tradtional methods of safeguarding houses against tremors. Moreover, it was concluded that mostly a lack of maintainance made older houses weak, not their constructional quality.

'Sheltering the Mountains' investigates and discusses the relationship between humans and the natural environment through the lens of high-altitude architecture. Focusing on a specific period from the 17th century to the present day, the research traces the development of architectural techniques used in extreme environments and analyses how they reflect and shape human behaviour towards nature.
Through an interdisciplinary approach that combines architectural and mountaineering history, environmental psychology, and anthropology, this thesis investigates the interconnections between architecture and human adaptation to the challenges posed by high-altitude environments. Drawing on a range of case studies, including mountain shelters, refuges and observatories, the research demonstrates how the Alps have become a tourist destination and its significance for our relationship with nature.
In addition to analysing the functional aspects of high-altitude architecture, this thesis explores the aesthetic and symbolic dimensions of these structures. It argues that architecture in extreme environments not
only serves practical purposes, but also embodies cultural and social values, and reflects broader attitudes towards nature and the environment.
The research concludes by reflecting on the lessons that can be drawn from the history of high-altitude architecture for contemporary debates about sustainable architecture and the relationship between humans and the natural world. It suggests that a deeper understanding of the ways in which architecture and the environment interact can inform the design of more effective and sustainable solutions for evolving in extreme environments, and contribute to a more harmonious relationship between humans and nature.

The co-opting of buildings constructed by the Nazi regime is dependent on three different factors: the first is need for a resource that is scarce, the second is circumstance both political as well as economical, and the last is ideology. It is in ideology were the approach between east and west concerning their Nazi legacy greatly differs. For the east, socialism had been victorious over Nazism in a war of extermination, leading to the creation of a socialist nation. Co-opting the building that had represented Nazism represented the ideological victory over its constructors. In the west, it had been a war between the Allied powers against the Axis powers. They war consequently was portrayed to have been perpetrated by a small group of criminals. By the time that questions arose over the Nazi legacy of Western Germany, the identity of the buildings had already transformed.

The thesis will elaborate Helena and Szymon Syrkus’ connection with the “Congress of Modern Architecture” (CIAM). It will investigate in what ways the Polish couple has brought Modernist ideas to Poland and put a special emphasis on the work of Helena Syrkus.
The point of focus will lay on how the Helena Syrkus could manage to keep in touch with the most influential architects of the 20th century and how her social skills and fluent knowledge of multiple languages (English, German, French) enabled her to become an influential female architect. She became friends with Walter and Ise Gropius, Cornelis van Eastern, and Frieda Fluck as well as Marcel Breuer, Siegfried Giedion and many others. Her correspondence became an important medium for her work as she shared her career plans and information about her recent projects. Thus, the research question is in a great part inspired by her vast correspondence network, where she reigned unchallenged. In a private letter to her sister, Syrkus makes it apparent that her typewriter was an integral item without which she would only depart for holidays. In any other case, a full-size or pocket typewriter would constantly be at her side. This special relationship that was prominent in Syrkus’ life gave impetus to the research question:
Has Helena Syrkus’ typewriter become a passport of Modernism to Polish architecture?

This academic essay focuses on the origins and development of the
patio popular, in specific in the 20th century when this typology appears
in Córdoba. It aims to not only contribute to the lacking of English
academic literature about the topic but also to create connections
between the historic context and its influence on the architecture of
the patio. This last is not present in the overall literature either.
The academic essay explores the historic context of Cordoba while
also making connections to the European and Spanish situations. It
presents events such as the agricultural crisis at the end of the 19th
century, the Spanish Civil War of 1936 and the Post-war situation
deeply influenced by the aftermath of the Second World War. With
this relationships have been drawn with the patios and their residents.
Lastly, the academic essay demonstrated the past difficulties of the
residents of the patios popular. This resulted in the organic growth
of the courtyard house and its adaptation to the circumstance of the
time. Also, a sense of community was created among its inhabitants
despite their difficulties.

This thesis will research Tel Aviv and more specifically its ‘White City Area’, which is Unesco World Heritage due to a great number of International Style buildings and urban heritage, which is unseen anywhere else in the world. The research uses the Zionist vision of Theodor Herzl, described in his book Altneuland as a framework, who wrote, before the foundation of Tel Aviv, how he described the future of Israel as a Modernist country with many European influences. Tel Aviv, the first Hebrew city, was built by Jewish immigrants and with them also architects. The town planning was done by the British colonial Patrick Geddes. Both architects and Geddes implemented European ideology and technology. The research will be what the relationship is between the theory of Herzl, the planning of Geddes and the execution of the modernist architects, which were heavily influenced by the Bauhaus School founded by Walter Gropius. Herzl already referred to many characteristics of Tel Aviv and Israel which were later indeed implemented by the urban planners and architects. The research will be done using the book Altneuland historical books, imagery, maps, Israeli songs, secondary literature, archival material, interviews and own experi- ence. This research seeks to add the theoretical ideas of Herzl to the analysis of how Tel Aviv became the buildings with the most International Style buildings in the world.

Can the process of gentrification be revealed in one of Antwerp’s most trendy and expensive neighborhoods of this moment and to what extent did it impact the social and built environment? This paper offers insight in the events that possibly led to gentrification on het Eilandje, more precisely de Oude Dokken, and the impact this had on the area. It will systematically review the Dutch and English literature regarding gentrification combined with data provided by and of the city of Antwerp, the history of the researched area, and fieldwork. This will lead to the conclusion that during the dynamic history of de Oude Dokken, the process of gentrification indeed occurred. The paper turns to the negative and positive impacts this process had on the built and social environment. It will be argued that the most prominent negative impact the process had on de Oude Dokken, was the homogenization of the social composition of the neighborhood and more specifically the expelling of earlier residents by wealthier residents. Although it could be argued the negative consequences outweigh the positive, one benefit should be highlighted. Due to the gentrification of the area, which was partially caused by the involvement of the government, the previously abandoned harbor area regained its vibrancy. The area that previously felt disconnected from the city center, is now perceived as a trendy and lively extension of it.

London is a city with extremely rich history, where old and new are heavily intertwined. A prime example of this is the King’s Cross area, which has continued to be an integral area of the city for many Londoners. However, throughout centuries its meaning has changed. People have worked there, started journeys there, had their craziest Saturday nights and now, in the light of recent developments, they can enjoy a walk in a park and a meal in a Michelin starred restaurant.
This paper explores how the frequent changes of King’s Cross’ use and function were expressed through architecture. The chapters chronologically describe the site’s transformation. The dynamic changes of the buildings’ and districts’ functions is hugely related to the political and economical situation in Britain, in addition to the global economy. The focus is put on the four periods of time which define the biggest changes: the time of industrial glory (1850 -1914), the decay and abandonment caused by wars and de-industrialisation (1914-1980), the interim use that enhanced artistic expression (1980-2007) and the newly regenerated commercial district (2007-now).
The analysis is conducted considering various aspects. Firstly, each chapter discusses the direct relation between architecture and the function behind it. Secondly, it focuses on the changes of social dynamic of the site. It explores who was attracted to the area during different periods and how the district was perceived by society. Lastly, it analyses the influence of the development of King’s Cross area on the urban fabric.

This thesis investigates the life of Charlotte Perriand. Specifically her ideas on design and architecture. At the beginning of her career being inspired by the industry and machines and later inspired by natural forms and materials.
The primary source is the autobiography of Perriand, where she has explained first-hand her relationships both professional as well as personal and her travels abroad. Additionally, research articles and biographies will be used for the literature research, as well as a documentary about her life and work.
The thesis explores the shift in design style from traditional to modernist in her early career and how she was inspired by machines to create functional and elegant furniture in the first part. The second part explores the cause and the change that her design style underwent, as she stepped away from machinal design and started spending time outdoors, working with natural materials, and making nature accessible to people through her leisure architecture. In the last part her travels and especially her time in Japan are studied and the influence she had on Japanese export. Furthermore, her later work is discussed and how it was inspired by her travels and the way she was capable to adapt to different contexts and embracing them in her designs.

With Hong Kong returning to China in 1997 after 156 years of British colonization, under the strong influences of regional politics, the neighboring town – Macao, soon followed this jurisdiction in 1999, making it the second “special administrative region” of China after Hong Kong, and the last Asia colony of Europe. After undergoing a rapid shifting of administrative and legal system change, Macao has experienced its peak of concentrating wealth and economy in the last two decades, backed by its intense gambling and entertainment industry. As a reaction to this economic phenomenon, Macao has eventually received titles like “Las Vegas of the East” and “Monte Carlo of the East” from the international market.

While celebrating the enormous wealth brought by the industry, the impacts that follow have fundamentally transformed the urban setting of Macao, including but not limited to the way people live, experience, local culture, and identity from the past. Furthermore, as this phenomenon has little connection and recognition by the local people, there has been limited research conducted regarding this topic.

This thesis will examine the urban history of Macao, the special administrative region, in chronological order, looking particularly into the two significant thresholds that shaped the urban development of the Macao SAR: 1st - The arrival of the Portuguese, 2nd the beginning of the casino era, thus, as Macao has such an unique typology that claimed only 32.9 kilometers square of land, which leads to a relatively small area of evaluation compared to the general understanding of “city.” As it concerns a limited area of studies, a longer study period would be more feasible for this thesis.

In the paper, the architectural style Mafia Baroque (or Mutro Baroque) and its connection to national identity will be the topic of historical research. As the movement was first seen at the beginning of the 1990s, it is strongly influenced by the change of political systems in Bulgaria. In search of representation medium, the arising “new elite” of the new democratic republic confidently portrayed themselves in the public sphere through the means of the baroque-like style. The intriguing character of Mafia Baroque could be described as a cocktail of various stylistic elements, along with the ebullient use of luxurious materials. Its aesthetics were and still are ground for controversial discussions among experts / professionals, journalists, and citizens. Either seen as kitsch and tasteless, or purely fascinating, the Mafia Baroque is an active element of the Bulgarian cityscape. On one hand, the style indicates the rejection of expert opinion, as well as the conscious decision to dispel the memory of the socialist past. On the other hand, Mafia Baroque as a phenomenon of the post-soviet time
can be seen as the result of an attempt and longing for integration in the architectural context of Western Europe. The thesis will take into consideration how the transition from the Soviet regime to democracy has been the trigger for this new architectural style. Additionally, the movement will be discussed in the context of different phenomena across Eastern Europe. As architectural esponses
of various political instabilities, the international examples are aiming to map the similarities and differences in the baroque-like architectural language. Through considering the multiplicity of Mafia Baroque the thesis will focus on investigating the characteristics of the movement as an architectural expression of the search for identity in the Post-Soviet time.

This thesis investigates the historical evolution of the atrium house in Europe. The origin and the climatic benefits of the atrium house were found by conducting literature review. Typological variants on the atrium house are determined by testing them to a set of criteria. The traditional atrium house developed in the Roman empire from Greek and Etruscan influences. The research shows four residential variants on the atrium typology in Europe, which are: the courtyard, cortile, patio and court. These typologies with enclosed outdoor spaces have impact by offering climatic benefits and a secluded outside space which stimulates social interaction. From an architectural perspective, this research emphasizes the benefits and history of the atrium typologies.

In this history thesis, the role and use of daylight within modernist architecture is explained. Daylight differs not only throughout the day, but also in lattitude. This causes a different approach to the organization and shaping of a building, which is dependent on geography, culture and climate. On the basis of a comparative study, the modernist architecture of two areas with a different latitude, namely Scandinavia and the Mediteranean, is examined in order to gain insight into how natural light is utilized in modernist architecture in Northern Europe and Southern Europe during the twentieth century.

In-between spaces are the gradual transition spaces between two opposites; between inside and outside or public and private. This research will investigate the motives and implementation of the concept within Dutch and Japanese architecture, as it is widely used within architecture of these countries. Because the in-between space concept is perceived differently by architects, theories and works of two Dutch and two Japanese architects are investigated. The Dutch architects are Aldo van Eyck (1918-1999) and Herman Hertzberger (1932) and Japanese architects are Kisho Kurokawa (1934-2007) and Sou Fujimoto (1971). This research reveals that the in-between space concept emerged as a response to the modern movement in the Netherlands. Van Eyck and Hertzberger strived for more human centred architecture and therefore implemented in-between spaces in their buildings. Kurokawa and Fujimoto are both influenced by Japanese culture. The in-between space concept is traced back to the Buddhism origin of the country. Even though the motives of the architects of both countries are different, the implementation is similar. The Dutch architects emphasise the human relationship with each other slightly more, whereas the Japanese architects emphasise the relationship between humans and their environment more. The ambiguous character of an in-between space leaves room for interpretation, providing new perceptions and a different spatial experience. The in-between space is a space in it’s own right and therefore just as important as other spaces.

The Flemish Renaissance Revival is a style developing around the middle of the XIXth century in the newly created Belgium, in pursuit of identity. The movement draws its inspiration from the Golden Age of Flanders during the Renaissance which had a strong architectural identity. The style started in Antwerp where it became really popular and rapidly spread to Brussels. The pavilion presented for the International Exposition of Paris in 1878 embodied this national style. Despite all of this, the style did not manage to become widely used in the whole country and even less in Wallonia, the French-speaking part of the country. How did a style that was intended to be national and represent the whole nation is now a symbol of Flemish separatism? Through examining contemporary and modern sources on the subject, the Flemish Revival will be explored with an architectural but also social and political approach. The historical, social, political and linguistic situation implies the division between the communities since the creation of the country. The lack of representation and the sense of belonging from a part of the population and the rise of the Flamingant movement at the same period influenced the Flemish Revival’s tracks. The style stayed restrained to a small Flamingant, liberal and bourgeois part of the population and is now seen as the Flemish style, as its name implies, without representing the whole country

Ten new countries were formed after World War I in Europe. One of them – Lithuania – got independent from the Russian Empire in 1918. More than 100 years of occupation left deep scars in Lithuania’s history. A revival became both an opportunity and a significant challenge. Two years after Lithuania got independent, the capital Vilnius was occupied by Poland and the second-largest city Kaunas was announced as the provisional capital. This significant historical moment determined radical transformations of Kaunas city. Restoring the Lithuanian identity, especially without Vilnius, became one of the major priorities. Therefore, trying to create Lithuanians’ architectural style served as a tool for inspiring society and for showing the advanced progress of the newly reborn country to the rest of Europe. These modernist buildings of Kaunas were named as the Architecture of Optimism. The positive feeling about Lithuania’s future was prevailing at that period because the country has not seen such radical progress of living environment in ages. In just 20 years Kaunas from countryside looking area became a modern, competitive city: the centre of academic, economic and political life. The city’s number of residents increased from 92 to 155 thousand (Vaitekūnas, 2021). This situation strongly influenced the architectural and urban identity of the city. From newly built individual art deco style houses to an art museum – distinctive modernist architectural style reflected the search for national identity and the turn towards the West. Architecture students that were coming back from abroad to independent Lithuania affected these searches drastically. The mix of modern Western approach and traditional values influenced previously mentioned distinction of architecture.

The ‘shopping centre’ undergoes significant changes due to new social demands and requirements of people. Where large American shopping malls face a consumerist crisis, neighbourhood shopping centres are on the rise in the Netherlands. A combination of complex urban planning concepts, and key building characteristic such as the ‘human scale’, ‘accessibility’, and ‘integration’ into a coherrent environment generate the success of these places. This history thesis provides a framework where the ‘bad name’ of the shopping centre can be rediscovered. It begins with an in depth research on urban planning to provide a foundation for understanding the idea behind the shopping mall typology. Next, it will discuss the history of the American Shopping Mall, since the origin of the Dutch Shopping Centre can be traced back to this typology. After the historical analysis of the American Mall, a spatial analysis will be made to Tunderstand the building characteristics of these typologies. Ending with the history and success of the shopping centre in the Netherlands.

The church is seen as a symbol, abearer of faith, art and culture, in a world that is increasingly globalized.Church buildings are like anchors in time, they tell us who we are and where wecome from. Nevertheless, the number of church visitors is decreasing becausethe number of faith bearers in the Netherlands continues to decline. This meansthat fewer churches are needed which results in more vacant churches in thefuture. A way of preserving church buildings is repurposing. In theNetherlands, 1500 church buildings have already been transformed into newfunctions and differ from apartments to supermarkets. But how does the publicperceive these buildings, and how does it differ from the past? Do theserepurposed church buildings contribute to the preservation of the history ofthe Netherlands? This will be investigated on the basis of the followingresearch question: “What is the value of repurposedchurch buildings through the course of history in the Netherlands?” This question is answered by dividing the research into three chapters, starting with the historical context of religionand church buildings in the Netherlands. The historical context of churchbuildings in the Netherlands was first mapped out by means of variousliterature studies. It can be said that throughout history, there have beenmultiple periods of change in the importance of faith and thus church buildingsin the Netherlands. The so to say all-time low of this notion was during thede-pillarization period in which the Netherlands became one of the most secularcountries in the world. In the second chapter, the church buildings that can befound in the Netherlands today are examined. It can be said that the value ofthe church building is still seen as added value in society today. However, itsnotion of value has changed over time. Where the church was first seen as aplace of faith and closed communities, the church is now experienced as a placeof culture and heritage, a place for the community that must be accessible tothe outside world. The historical added value, along with the value as aconnecting element in society, makes the church worth preserving. Repurposinghas been happening in the Netherlands for centuries, but especially since 1970repurposing has played an increasingly important role. When a church isrepurposed, people believe that it should be treated with respect. The peoplealso like it when a public function comes in return. This is often the case,both due to the demand of the community and the urban location make churchesextremely suitable for public functions. Despite this, there is often criticismof the repurposing of churches, just like the church buildings discussed inthis thesis. Initially there is often indignation and opposition. But itappears that in the longer term acceptance is there, it is often a matter ofgetting used to. This has resulted in the fact that these repurposed churchbuildings are increasingly becoming part of the society. The value andperception of church buildings may change over time but the appreciation forthese buildings remain. 

The paper "Representation shapes Reality" reflects on the relationship between drawing and architecture in six parts. It first gives an overview of the history of drawing – which is seen to be closely linked to the history of the architecture profession as we know it today. The overview establishes a historical trajectory and identifies patterns in the use of certain types and modes of drawing. These types and modes are then analysed in further detail. This part is bookended by an overview of the way architectural historians and theorists have examined the role of the drawing. With this background information at hand, the paper studies the work of contemporary architects to examine the hypothesis that the way the architect draws influences the built outcome significantly. In conclusion, the paper argues that the use of a certain mode of drawing or the layers of information depicted in them drastically affects the object being designed, as opposed to the conventional understanding of its role as a passive, transparent medium.