In this research, a thermal analysis of the wire and arc additive manufacturing process is presented based on the F.E. method.

An important quality of the F.E. model that is presented in this research is to describe the temperature field that is experienced by the deposited material in the wire and arc additive manufacturing process. In contrast to the traditional method of monitoring the substrate temperature, the F.E. model allows to describe the temperature field that is experienced by the deposited material constituting both the multilayer weld deposit and the component. Accordingly, the F.E. model is capable to describe the effect of the locally attained temperature field on the microstructure of the deposited material constituting the multilayer weld deposit in terms of the thermal characteristics including the temperature distribution, the locally attained temperature values, the cooling rates and the temperature gradients throughout the component.

Two cooling methods are proposed to control the heat dissipation from the component to the environment based on the application of an interlayer waiting time and immersing the component into a cooling medium. The results show a significant effect of the cooling methods on the temperature field that is experienced by the material constituting both the multilayer weld deposit and the component. Indicating that the cooling methods that are proposed in this research are effective to control the microstructure and the temperature field that is experienced by the component in the wire and arc additive manufacturing process. The resulting microstructure is characterised in terms of the microstructural morphology and the microstructural constituents, using optical microscopy based on the average grain size and the distribution of alloying elements throughout the material constituting the multilayer weld deposit. In addition, the average grain size and the distribution of the alloying elements throughout the material are evaluated in terms of the hardness values.

Functionally graded materials (FGM) are a class of materials in which the chemical composition or microstructure varies as a function of position, offering unique material properties. In this study, a functionally graded structure was manufactured using Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and a double wire feed device. The wire feed rate was changed step by step of the austenitic AISI 316L and ferritic AISI 430L stainless steel wire, creating a chemically graded duplex stainless steel structure. The structure, approximately 30 mm in height, was investigated using Optical Microscopy, X-Ray Diffraction, X-Ray Fluorescence and Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy. The transverse section is composed of large elongated grains. The chemical analysis revealed a relatively smooth change in Nickel and Molybdenum composition over the section, due to remelting of previously deposited layers. The graded material showed a gradual transition in phase fractions from mainly austenite and some ferrite to mainly ferrite and some austenite, to fully ferric structure. There were no brittle phases detected in the structure.

In recent years, Wire and Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), is gaining attractions both from academia and industry, because it has the potential to substitute or complement the traditional manufacturing methods. Traditional materials and methods are reaching their limitation when demanding and special applications are considered.

The current growth in WAAM applications will boost the WAAM consumable material development in the coming future. WAAM applications mostly refer to small batch production or prototypes, which often requires special wire compositions or can benefit from tailoring the consumable composition for the desired components. On one hand, solid wire production is only economically viable when large volumes are involved. On the other hand, metal-cored wires are particularly suitable to produce tailored or small-batch consumable compositions, which is very attractive for WAAM. However, only limited research has been carried out in the use of metal-cored wires in additive manufacturing. In this research, the focus is to explore the use of metal-cored wire in WAAM applications. Two chemical compositions, one ferrous, medium carbon low steel alloy (AM-XC-45), and one non-ferrous, Stellite 6 (cobalt-based superalloy), metal-cored wires were investigated based on industrial interests at RAMLAB.

The microstructure of the WAAM AM-XC-45 thin wall was characterized using optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Pearlite, ferrite, bainite, and martensite are present in the deposited wall. Columnar grains are found near the fusion line. The repeated thermal cycles cause the grains to become finer from the top to bottom layers. The mechanical properties including microhardness and tensile strength were tested and compared with the traditional processing methods like casting, milling, and forging. It showed a comparable or superior microhardness and tensile strength to the traditional process whereas the relative lower elongation of the deposited AM-XC-45 thin wall indicates that further post heat treatment is needed to improve the ductility of the part.

Stellite 6 is a cobalt-based superalloy, which has good wear and corrosion resistance and retains these properties at high temperatures. In this study, Stellite 6 metal-cored wire (WEARTECH® WT-6 GMAW-C, AWS A5.21 ERCCoCr-A) is selected and optimized to obtain results comparable to the commonly employed and more costly laser deposition, in terms of microstructure and mechanical properties. The optimal deposition parameters were developed using the S355 steel substrate, and then adopted on depositing on the AISI 420 stainless steel substrate. Characterization showed that Stellite 6 layer mainly contains Co-Cr-Fe solid solution with FCC crystal structure as the matrix and the Cr7C3 and Cr3C2 were identified in the microstructure through SEM, EDS, and XRD. These carbides can contribute to the strength. In addition, the identified Co4W2C carbides can contribute to the wear properties of the Stellite 6 WAAM deposits. The dilution and hardness of the WAAM deposit can reach the same level as laser deposition.

Additionally, a 3D temperature distribution model is developed by adopting the moving mesh technique to numerically study the WAAM process. The model helps to gain a better understanding of the physical phenomena (heat and mass transfer) during the WAAM deposition. The AM-XC-45 was used to validate the developed model. The simulated and experimental results were compared. The dilution and HAZ of WAAM deposited single bead was used as validation criteria. The A1 line (1100K) simulation is in a good agreement with the experimental result. The fusion line (1800K) shows some deviation. Compared with laser deposition, the main differences between the two processes lie on the heat source, the boundary conditions, and the material responses to the process.