The application of vertical greening systems (VGS) onto building envelopes constitutes an innovative way to implement more green in the living environment. Especially in dense urban areas, where only limited space is available to integrate more horizontal greening at ground level, VGS have the potential to contribute towards creating a greener, healthier, more nature-inclusive and climate resilient urban environment. This by facilitating and contributing to natural ecosystem functioning, hence providing ecosystem services and through those, benefits for society. These benefits include among others an enhanced microclimate, biodiversity and aesthetic appeal, as well as improved physical and mental health, thermal performance, energy efficiency and air quality, and reduction of urban heat island effect and noise disturbance.

In order to substantiate the total set of costs and benefits associated with VGS implementation and enhance rational decision-making, in present research the development of a standardised framework and interactive economic valuation tool is proposed.

In the end, an economic valuation framework and tool were developed which can support the decision-making process regarding VGS application. The framework is based on Life Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) and Social Cost Benefit Analysis (SCBA). These analyses relate to real estate investors and society (resident focus) respectively. To assess and report on the values of the costs and benefits of these innovative systems, distinct themes were established. The cost themes entail financial costs, environmental costs and potential Ecosystem Disservices. Benefits are distributed over the themes health & well-being, climate adaptation & mitigation, real estate, social & recreational & commercial and biodiversity.

The current version of the tool is able to perform quantification and monetisation for financial costs, large parts of the environmental costs, reduction of airborne PM10, increased rental incomes (investors) and rental costs (residents), reduced energy usage for heating and MIA & Vamil tax incentives. Based on implemented valuation methods, the case study delivers project specific results. Though, it is explicitly noted that these results do not yet provide a complete representation of all costs and benefits, due to a limited number of (benefit) indicators that are monetised. Hence, this version of the tool should be regarded as initial impetus for further development. This in order to ultimately obtain an all-encompassing VGS Valuation Tool, fit for project specific economic valuation of costs and benefits of VGS.
The result dashboard visualises the valuation outcomes and results in clear tables and graphs, generating insights into the contribution of different themes towards the total costs and benefits of VGS. This can initiate further recommendations for a research agenda into distinct aspects of certain VGS.

Hence, the VGS Valuation tool could become a conversational mechanism or steering instrument, to stimulate or justify choices for specific types of VGS at given locations. The test panel of anticipated end users was enthusiastic about the comprehensiveness and user experience of the tool and acknowledged its future practical value.

In the field of structural and geotechnical engineering, a uniform approach to predict and model foundation settlements during the design phase of a high-rise building appears to be missing. In the Netherlands, pile foundations of tower structures underlain by compressible soil layers are challenging to model due to different stiffness and load distribution effects. As a result, the Dutch building code currently used for foundation design, the NEN9997-1, does not include realistic soil-structure interaction (SSI) effects. Instead, the NEN defines a simplified approach for high-rise buildings as the sum of two types of foundation settlements: individual pile head settlements (s1) and pile group settlements (s2) due to compressible layers below pile tip level.

Numerical models were used in this thesis to predict the individual contribution of different soil layers to measured subsidence of tower structures. By running several simulations using Tomlinson’s load spread method and the new embedded beam formulation (EB-I) in Plaxis 3D, it was found that approximately 65% of the total (s2) settlements are caused by the compression of clay layers below foundation level. Moreover, the effects of different pile factors (αs, αp) on the load distribution (more pile shaft resistance versus base resistance) from superstructure to subsurface were investigated. This research concluded that updated pile factors - in accordance with recent pile load tests on the Maasvlakte (Gavin, 2020) - influenced the predicted and modelled pile head settlements (s1) slightly for a Fundex 560 pile. Nonetheless, the change in load distribution due to different pile factors did not affect the vertical effective stresses or resulting (s2) settlements at depth.

Further, to accomplish a more uniform modelling approach for high-rise building settlements, this thesis provides insights for an automated soil-structure interaction mattress methodology as illustrated in Figure 1. A model verification is proposed for the mattress model approach using finite element software commonly used by geotechnical (Plaxis 3D) and structural engineers (SCIA Engineer) in daily practice. In essence, it is based on a simplified (s2) settlement analysis from Plaxis 3D (step 1) and mattress fit model in SCIA Engineer (step 2) consisting of multiple springs with linear stiffness (k_bedding) connected by a plate (E_plate) and a simplified surface load on top. The surface load represents the quasi-permanent building loads. An apparent limitation of the Plaxis 3D model (step 1) was the missing building stiffness or load redistribution within the superstructure due to differential settlements over time. However, a modelling discrepancy of only 1% was found for both the peak and differential settlements between SCIA Engineer (step 3) and Plaxis 3D (step 4) for a theoretical, symmetric high-rise building of 69 m in the North of Amsterdam. Thus, a model verification was accomplished by comparing the settlements from Plaxis 3D with the building on top of EB-I embedded beams (step 4) to the deformations of the fitted mattress model (k_bedding + E_plate) representing the compressible soils underneath the structure in SCIA Engineer (step 3). Altogether, this thesis provides a solid foundation towards a more universal design methodology between multiple stakeholders while including SSI effects for settlement predictions of high-rise buildings in daily practice.

The importance of joints in timber structures is strongly emphasized in the existing literature (e.g., Blaß & Sandhaas, 2017; McLain, 1998). The aim of this project is to provide insight into whether the cross-sectional sizes of the member are dictated by the dimensional sizes of the laterally loaded dowel-type connection or the strength and stiffness requirements of the member itself in timber frame structures.

In this research project, a parametric study is performed. The parameters in this study represent the global frame structure and the laterally loaded dowel-type connections. Together, these parameters form a parametric model that lays the foundation for the tool that is constructed in this study. This tool is built in order to generate a number of unique configurations that fulfill the design verifications. Using the tool, two analyses are performed. In analysis 1, the effect of different distances between the secondary beams is examined. In analysis 2, the effect of different grid sizes of the column in the frame structure is studied. In both analyses, two member sizes are first selected based on the criteria 'lowest cross-sectional area' (LCA) and 'lowest height beam' (LHB). These two member sizes form the starting point for generating different configurations of laterally loaded dowel-type connections.

In this research project, three factors are found to contribute to the largest reduction in the number of unique configurations for all constructed cases examined in analysis 1 and 2. These three factors are small column widths combined with high shear forces, the effect of a 'compact' member, and the effect of 'brittle' failure mechanisms on the LCA-members, which was selected as a design constraint in this study. These factors may be relevant for engineers to take into account when designing the structural members.

However, in this study, no constructed case is found in which the member needs to be redesigned in order to fit the connection. This means that one can conclude that the dimensional size of the structural member is dictated by the strength and stiffness requirements of the member itself. Important to note is that, although a large number of parameters was incorporated into this study, not all potentially relevant parameters were taken into account. When incorporating factors such as the horizontal forces in the connection, the effect of shrinkage and swelling, the level of difficultly in terms of assembling the joints on site, and adjustments to guarantee a certain level of fire resistance, certain turning points in the dimensional interaction between joints and members may be found.

Finally, beyond allowing for the dimensional interaction between joints and members to be studied, the tool constructed in this study is also valuable to practical engineering. The large amount of data that is generated by the tool allows the engineer to explore the different possible configurations in the process of designing joints. By connecting the output of the tool to the Design Explorer interface, the engineer has the opportunity to search through all the individual characteristics or a specific range and examine different possible connections in an efficient manner. One of the main contributions of this research project, therefore, lies in the tool itself.

Waste generation is one of the main environmental problems and is a result of the current linear economy. Materials/elements are used whereafter they are wasted which is a problem considering the finite material supply on earth. Therefore, the current linear economy needs to move towards a circular one in which materials are reused and thus kept in the circle. However, reuse is still not a common practise. This is due to the fact that there are no insights in the structural feasibility, potential savings on environmental impact, and costs related to reuse. Besides the lacking knowledge about the different aspects there is no clear image where the potentials for reuse are located within the sector.
The goal of this research is to give insights in the reuse potentials and to find opportunities within the sector. This research started with a material flow analysis to find promising material flows in the sector. In this material flow analysis it was found that the demolition of office buildings is responsible for a big portion of the outgoing material flow and the majority of the ingoing material flow is related to the new construction of serial houses. In the analysis it was found that the elements with the highest ECI and mass are floor elements. Next the available floor elements coming from office buildings and the floor elements needed for the construction of serial houses were examined to check possible matches. It was found that new plank- and hollow core slab floors used in serial houses can potentially be substituted for reused monolithic- and hollow core slab floors out of office buildings.
Thereafter, two different tools were developed. One related to the reuse of monolithic floors and one related to the reuse of hollow core slab floors. These tools are means to give insights in the reuse potentials considering the structural feasibility, potential savings on environmental impact, and costs. Different cases were checked using the tools and the following results were found:
-In all cases it was structurally feasible to use reused floors coming from office buildings in the new construction of serial houses.
-When reused floor elements are used it is possible to save 40-90% on environmental impact.
-Reused floor elements can be cheaper or more expensive as new floor elements.
These results are promising and hopefully contribute to an acceleration of reuse in practise. The research states where the potentials for reuse are located in the sector and presents two tools which check the reuse potentials considering structural feasibility, environmental impact, and costs.

To mitigate climate change and to reach Dutch targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions with 49% by 2030, emissions by the construction industry must be lowered. Developments regarding mass timber construction have increased the potential to do so. This thesis addresses the problem that the opportunity of reducing CO2 emissions by constructing in timber is not utilised to its full potential. Timber can contribute because the production of structural timber elements is less carbon intensive compared to concrete, the most used structural building material in the Netherlands. Additionally, timber has the capacity to capture and store carbon. From a literature study it is concluded that one of the main reasons for the reluctance towards timber structures is the perception of higher cost.

The goal of this thesis is to qualify and quantify the conditions under which timber structures can be competitive with concrete structures in the Netherlands. For two designs to compete at the same level they must have the same potential profit and serve the same function. Nine interdependent variables are investigated in this research: |1| building use, |2| vertical bearing system, |3| stability system, |4| structural floor system, |5| floor span, |6| building height, |7| CO2 emission costs, |8| additional revenue for timber structures, and |9| the calculation method regarding biogenic carbon.

It is found that considering both the costs and the (non-financial and financial) benefits is important when choosing a structural building material. The competitiveness of timber structures increases if CLT is efficiently used with a limited building height and reduced floor span. Imposing a CO2 tax will give the industry an incentive to reduce CO2 emissions and therefore use timber more frequently, which is essential to mitigate climate change.

In slender high-rise buildings wind-induced accelerations can become the governing design criterion. These issues can be solved by increasing mass, increasing stiffness, or increasing the damping ratio. The focus of this research is on the last option and investigates the opportunities of supplemental damping in the Dutch high-rise building context. The research report answers the following main research question: In what way can supplementary damping be applied in Dutch, slender, tall buildings to efficiently meet the structural design requirements? A literature research was conducted to the topics of wind-engineering, high-rise structures, and supplemental dampers. To answer the main research question two research methods have been applied. First, a variant study was performed in Karamba, a FEA plug-in for Rhino Grasshopper. Building height, floor mass, outrigger, stiffness limits, and damping ratio were varied. From this analysis charts were generated from which it could be determined which design requirement is governing. In this way opportunities for the application of supplemental damping could be determined. In the last phase of the research the mitigating effects of tuned mass damper (TMD) were modelled with the use of the theory of random vibrations and modal analysis. With a developed python script the reduced accelerations could be computed and the parameters of a TMD could be determined.

The implementation of timber as a load-bearing and stabilizing material for high-rise structures has significantly increased over the last decades due to its potential of reducing the environmental footprint of a structure. Timber structures present a reduced global stiffness and self-weight compared to structures incorporating traditional construction materials, making them prone to high accelerations caused by wind load which affects the structural integrity and user comfort. The acceleration of a structure is a highly complex parameter that must be determined using modal analysis computed by a full-scale finite element model, and is significantly influenced by the magnitude of the wind and vertical loads, as well as the global stiffness of the structure. During the preliminary design phase, it is the responsibility of structural engineers to determine the feasibility of the design and estimate the amount of material required and the distribution of the structural elements. However, this process must be done under a limited amount of time, forcing engineers to rely on rules of thumb and previous experience, which are not currently available for the design of timber high-rise structures. Therefore, the goal of this investigation is to perform a parametric study to determine the influence of various parameters on the design of timber high-rise structures and assist structural engineers in making well-argued decisions during the preliminary design phase. The preliminary design parameters to be studied in the parametric study are: stability system design, connection stiffness and building height. The ranges for the parameters were selected based on extreme values such that clear trends regarding their influence on design could be visualized. This decision limits the design feasibility of some configurations studied in this investigation. The selected stability systems to be studied are glulam frame, CLT core and glulam diagrid. The design verification for each design alternative is done using ULS and SLS criteria provided by Eurocode, as well as a simplified method to estimate the dynamic response of the structure. Finally, the sizing of the structural elements and data collection was done by the implementation of evolutionary algorithms. From the data collected it was determined that the most influential design parameter for the design of timber high-rise structures is the stability system selection given that it determines the global stiffness, which showed a significantly higher influence on the dynamic response of the structure than its self-weight. Moreover, the efficiency of the different stability systems was assessed based on the maximum slenderness they could achieve compared to the amount of material they required. Based on this definition, it was determined that the glulam diagrid is two times more efficient than the CLT core and three times more efficient than the glulam frame. The efficiency of the glulam diagrid is caused by its high global stiffness provided by the triangular configuration of the diagonal elements. These observations prove that the effect of timber’s low density can be mitigated by the implementation of efficient stability systems. The influence of connection stiffness was determined to be directly related to the ability of the stability system to provide lateral stability to the structure. The influence of this parameter on form stable structures such as the CLT core and the glulam diagrid, proved to be nearly negligible, while for non-form stable structures such as the glulam frame it proved to be highly influential. However, it was also determined that the addition of rotational stiffness in the connections causes an exponential increase of the costs and environmental footprint of the structure, which decreases their design feasibility. Finally, the influence of building height on the design is visualized by its effect on the dynamic response of the structure caused by the logarithmic increase of the wind speed as this parameter increases, as well as a decrease of the global stiffness proportional to the efficiency of the stability system.

The objective of this project is to devise and develop a design tool that lets the user explore different force flows during conceptual design, with the goal to inform different geometries, thereby realizing an integrated design process. Key characteristics that this tool must incorporate to be successful are defined as feedback (the ability to provide rapid and reliable analysis results), guidance (the ability to guide the user towards better designs), design freedom (the ability to allow users to make their own decisions and use their own expertise) and structural overview (the ability to make the general structural behavior clear instantly). Graphic Statics has been identified as a suitable method to model and compute the force flow with, and has been incorporated as the base of the tool. A workflow has been devised where the user first identifies and investigates a design problem manually, creating an initial design that must be used as input for the tool, which includes a definition of joints, members. loads, supports and certain boundary conditions. Due to the nature of Graphic Statics, this initial design must be statically determinate. The tool has been developed for Grasshopper, a parametric and associative modelling plugin of Rhinoceros, which provides a platform that meets the defined development criteria of accessibility, real-time modelling, geometric flexibility, extensibility, and presentation independence. The developed prototype bearing the name of GSDesign consists of custom components scripted in C# containing the main functionality, as well as Grasshopper clusters for specific visualization sequences. GSDesign facilitates the design of 2D truss-like structures, which can be interpreted as force flow designs, whose efficiency is quantified in the total load path. Feedback is generated in real-time, and is presented in a force diagram, form diagram, unified diagram, and/or as numerical values, providing precise and accurate results. Guidance is incorporated intrinsically through Graphic Statics, but also by the incorporation of an optimization process using the total load path value and the genetic optimization component Galapagos native to Grasshopper. Design freedom is ensured through the general setup of the tool, which allows for maximum utilization of the design flexibility that Grasshopper offers. The tool provides a clear structural overview through the visualizations that characterize Graphic Statics, which can be customized to preference by the user. A user experiment has been set up to test the functionality and workflow of the tool in a simple design case carried out by structural engineers to ensure its practical value. Eleven participants were asked to first create an initial design by hand, and subsequently reproduce that design in GSDesign and improve it with optimization. The use of GSDesign visibly led to new insights towards more efficient structural forms, which was supported by an average drop of 31% in structural material volume when comparing the fitness data of the optimized design with the initial design. Also the participants on average rated their own optimized design more than 40% higher on structural efficiency than their initial manual design, importantly without compromising on practical feasibility.

In the design of steel structures, optimisation methods promise cheap, light and sustainable structures. However, the resulting designs tend to have a high diversity of profiles, making them unbuildable. Furthermore, the optimisation problem is mathematically complex, leading to a long and potentially unsolvable optimisation process. Grouping methods solve both issues by finding the optimum solution, for which the number of distinct profiles is limited. Multiple grouping methods exist in literature, and it is not known which is the best: the methods have not been applied on the same problems, and the computational effort has not been compared. This gap in literature leads to the following question: “Which method for grouping can find the lightest and cheapest steel structure with minimal computational effort?” To answer this question, a comparison of the existing grouping methods is made on their theoretical and numerical performance. The theoretical comparison comprises the size and properties of the search space, and the number of additional calculations. The numerical comparison consists of weight optimisation of eight benchmark problems. For each structure and method, the weight of the solution and corresponding computational effort is evaluated. Manually grouping of members, which is the most popular grouping method, relies on the engineer’s expertise and rules of thumb. This method requires no additional calculations but in general fails to find the optimum grouping for a light or cheap structure. Other existing methods include the geometry, axial force distribution or an ungrouped result in their grouping process, or adapt the optimisation problem. Of these methods, only the cardinality constraints method is guaranteed to potentially find the lightest grouped design, while reducing the search space for a small number of groups. However, it creates many local optima, which increases the complexity of the search space. In the aim of finding a grouping method which creates a simple and small search space and has low computational effort, the fully stressed combinatorial search method is proposed. In this method, the grouping is found by a combinatorial search, which evaluates the estimated weight or costs of a restricted set of groupings based on the weight per unit length of the members of a fully stressed design. Then, optimisation of a small and simple search space finds the corresponding optimum profiles. These steps are repeated, in which the fully stressed design uses the result of the previous optimisation as its reference design. The loop repeats until the grouping is unchanged, or the result diverges. In all numerical experiments, the new method gave results with a low weight, while it kept the computational effort to an acceptable level. It gave the lightest design for four out of eight problems and showed high certainty for converging to the lightest design in two problems. For the other two problems it performed second best. Conclusively, this method is the best available grouping method for steel structural optimisation. In case of cost optimisation, the new grouping method can efficiently find the optimum design including the optimum number of groups; the new method converges to cheaper design with less computations than in the case no grouping is applied. For a real-life case-study, the costs of a design were reduced with 7.3% compared to a manually grouped design and with 19.6% compared to the conventional design process. I suggest that further research focusses on further development of the new grouping method as proposed improvements can be made on the initial design, and the number of computations in the combinatorial search and fully stressed design. Moreover, the effectiveness of a suggested simplification of the new method should be investigated. This would allow application for engineers who are not able to apply a mathematical optimisation method. For practical application, incorporation of building codes and cost functions with a well-defined scope are desired. Finally, utilisation of the grouping methods in other applications is possible, but the performance of the methods should be evaluated per application.

Theshortage in housing and office spaces, combined with the desire of people tolive in densely populated cities results in a lack of space. A proposedsolution can be found in the usage of high-rise buildings. Nowadays there ismore awareness for the environment, thus this research tries to reduce theenvironmental impact of a high-rise building by optimizing the material used inload-bearing structures. This research aims to give designers and engineersmore insight into the added value of structural optimization; in particular forthe material usage in the load-bearing structure of high-rise buildings. Theresearch objective is formulated as follows: What is the optimal topology for a reinforced concrete load-bearingstructure, situated at the perimeter of a high-rise building when optimizingthe material use?  A building isclassified as high-rise building when its roof is 70 m or more above groundlevel and accommodates work and/or living space. In literature the distinctionis made between three sorts of optimization: size, shape and topologyoptimization. Topology optimization has the most freedom, therefore it is morelikely to find a novel structure which minimizes the material use as much aspossible. In specific the Ground Structure Method (GSM) is used. The initialground structure is constructed by creating members between all nodes (fullconnectivity) which are located in the design space. The cross-sectional areasof the bars are the design variables in the optimization. An option is that thevariables turn to zero, thus elements are deleted resulting in less material.The conventional GSM starts with the full connectivity as initial groundstructure, deletes elements and calculates the new load distribution until athreshold is reached. In the end the load-bearing structure will consist ofcolumns, braces and beams, which are located at the perimeter of the floorplan. Literature indicates that (high-rise) buildings which are mainly loadedby horizontal loads would be optimal if they contain arches in the load-bearingstructure, or resemble the so-called Michell truss. However, the influence ofthe vertical load is often not taken into account, therefore this isinvestigated with the help of a parametric study. To compare the results withreality, a case study (Boston & Seattle, Rotterdam) is investigated.   The core of the research is the furtherdevelopment of the optimization code, based on the GSM, written by He et al.,where multiple load cases and demands for the material strengths are implemented.In contrast to deleting elements, the code uses an adaptive ‘member adding’scheme, which is firstly proposed by Gilbert and Tyas. This scheme solvesproblems faster than the conventional GSM, up to 8 times, and is able to solvelarge problems. This code is extended during this research with new functionswhich implement demands for fire, second-order, buildability, flexural bucklingand stiffness. Also it is possible to add self-weight to the optimization. Thestiffness is implemented by adding a constraint to the displacement of the topof the building, wherefore a recursive resizing algorithm is written based onthe article of Chan. Thus the extended code exists of two optimizations, firsta strength optimization and afterwards a stiffness optimization. The code iswritten in Python and for the purpose of post-processing exporting the data toExcel and Abaqus is possible.  With thehelp of the extended code, two design spaces are investigated. One design spaceis smaller, such that the computational time is low and many variations can beexamined during the parametric study on the total vertical to total horizontalload ratio (v/h-ratio). The other is based on a case study for comparison witha realistic situation. The verification of the code shows that the extrafunctions work properly for the investigated problems. If the functionsconcerning the stiffness optimization, inclusion of self-weight, fire,buildability and second-order are used, the extended code becomes unstable andthe computation time increases enormously when optimizing the case study.Therefore it is chosen not to include during obtaining the results. The resultsof the parametric study shows an expected pattern for the load-bearingstructure, for a v/h-ratio below 4. The pattern consist of arches, originatingfrom the Michell truss. The optimization of the case study, subjected to onerealistic load combination, showed no clear pattern for the load-bearingstructure. Post-processing steps, based on engineering judgement, are taken toclarify the solutions, which showed that the columns above the supports shouldbe large in comparison to the other elements and that the arches are the mostoptimal structure. Therefore an “optimized” load-bearing structure consistingof arches is proposed. The analysis of the “optimized” load-bearing structureshows us that most of the elements meet the strength requirements. To find theoptimal solution an iterative process would be needed, because increasing thecross-section of an element will decrease the stress but increase thestiffness, thus attracting more load.   Thedifference between the optimized load-bearing structure and the originalload-bearing structure of the case study is that the optimized uses archesinstead of (punched) structural walls and uses less material (±3%). From thepost-processing of the results it is concluded that increasing the strengthratio (compression to tensile) to 1.0, decreasing the total v/h-ratio orignoring the rigid-diaphragm working of the floor help clarify the results ofthe optimization.   This research extendsthe current literature with extra insights in the use of the Ground StructureMethod in an optimization code. Also, it confirms that the arches (originatingfrom Michel Truss) is an efficient manner to transfer the loads to thesupports. However, more research in the influence of the supports, the designspace and the material type on the clearness of the optimal solution is needed.  The advice for designers and engineersis to see what the possibilities are for arches to use in their load-bearingstructure, because these are efficient in transferring the loads so materialcan be saved. The current version of the code needs to be made more userfriendly, stabler and faster before it is recommended to be used by designersand engineers. The extended code is a first attempt to implement multiple rulesfrom the Eurocode in a optimization code.  

Cross-Laminated timber (CLT), and other engineered timber products, are under high demand due to their prefabricated nature and environmental benefits. A key concern surrounding the application of CLT in buildings is its combustible nature and subsequent contribution to a compartment fire. Previous research has shown that exposed CLT, under certain circumstances, can achieve self-extinguishment. This research aims to further experimentally investigate the fire performance of small-scale compartments containing exposed CLT. The focus of this study is threefold, namely to investigate: i) the influence of (commercially available) adhesives used in CLT panels on fire behaviour; ii) the influence of CLT panel configuration on fire behaviour and iii) the ability of design guidelines to predict experimentally obtained fire behaviour. By investigating these aspects, a detailed investigation into fire behaviour of compartments with exposed CLT is presented to characterise the influence of CLT on enclosure fire behaviour and assess the ability of CLT to reliably self-extinguish. In general, it was found that reliable self-extinguishment is promoted when small-scale compartment fire tests reveal the avoidance of burn-through behaviour (and a second flashover), due to the combined effect of CLT adhesive type and CLT panel configuration. The particular observations recorded in this research project (relating to adhesive type and CLT panel configuration) serve as a base on which to conduct further research (especially by conducting experiments at real compartment scales). In addition, the investigation into the ability of a design guideline to predict fire behaviour, namely a Parametric Fire Curve (PFC) calculation method that includes the contribution of exposed CLT to the fuel load, provided mixed results. Further refinement is required to improve the model’s ability to predict compartment behaviour.