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Active packaging is one of the innovative food packaging concepts that has been introduced as a response to the continuous changes in current consumer demands and market trends. Major active packaging techniques are concerned with substances that absorb oxygen, ethylene, moisture, carbon dioxide, flavours/odours and those which release carbon dioxide, antimicrobial agents, antioxidants and flavours. The main objectives of this article are to. (1) provide a literature review about the different types of active packaging concepts with respect to mechanism of action, effectiveness and the effects on foods, (2) provide a state of the art about the experimental development and commercialization of active packaging concepts, (3) provide a scope of applications and (4) discuss the obstacles to be overcome in order to make extensive commercial application of active packaging in Europe feasible.

EC Directive 93/43/EEC of 14 June 1993 on the hygiene of food stuffs has been implemented in the Netherlands through the Food and Commodity Act (Warenwet) of 14 December 1995. This Directive requires food companies to identify steps in their activities that are critical to ensuring food safety, and to ensure that adequate safety procedures are identified, implemented, maintained and reviewed based on the principles of the Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system. HACCP is a tool used to assess hazards, estimate risks and establish specific control measures that emphasize prevention and control rather than reliance on end-product testing. Increasing public awareness of food safety, together with the introduction of this new legislation, has led producers and retailers of food to demand higher standards from their suppliers. Suppliers of raw materials, ingredients and also food packaging will be expected to bring their standards of hygiene in line with the expectations of the food industry. Food producers will need to obtain the guarantee from their suppliers that the packaging does not negatively influence their products. HACCP is a method that can also be applied to ensure the safety and other quality aspects of all kinds of food packaging materials such as films, foils, trays, cups, boxes and tubs made of paper, cardboard, polymers, metal and other materials (single use or disposable packagings as well as re-usable and recycled packagings). At the Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research (TNO), the quality and safety aspects of re-use of food packaging, and refillable bottles in particular, have been the subject of extensive investigations in the project 'Quality monitoring of synthetic refillable bottles'. In this paper the set-up of the project and the Codes of Practice for refillable bottles are described. Moreover, the applicability of HACCP to food packagings and an example of a HACCP study for refillable PET bottles will be discussed.

Packaging foodstuffs is a dynamic process which continually has to respond to the changes in supply and demand which are the result of adaptations to the varying demands of the consumer, changes in retail practices, technological innovations, new materials and developments in legislation, especially with respect to environmental concerns. The packaging chain is, therefore, confronted with a complexity of problems which require an integral multidisciplinary approach.

The effect of solvent absorption on additive migration was studied by relating the diffusion coefficient (D) of Irganox 1076 to the maximum solvent absorption of different solvents in low-density polyethylene (LDPE) film. Solvents tested were ethanol, isopropanol, isooctane, ethylacetate, cyclohexane, tributyrin, tricaprylin and olive oil. Diffusion and partition coefficients were determined by fitting the migration curves, i.e. the concentration of Irganox 1076 in solvent as a function of time, with Fick's diffusion equation. The results for the low molecular weight solvents show that with increasing maximum solvent absorption, D of Irganox 1076 is increasing as well. This trend is not observed for the two triglycerides and olive oil. In spite of absorption, no increase in D was observed. The obtained result is the basis of an extended predictive migration model that, besides migrant and polymer properties, is also based on the maximum solvent absorption in the polymer. Chemicals/CAS: Antioxidants; Butylated Hydroxytoluene, 128-37-0; Irganox 1076, 2082-79-3; Polyethylene, 9002-88-4; Solvents

Changes in the way foods are produced, distributed, stored and retailed, reflecting the continuing increase in consumer demands for improved quality and extended shelf-life for packaged foods, are placing ever-greater demands on the performance of food packaging. Consumers want to be assured that the packaging is fulfilling its function of protecting the integrity, quality, freshness and safety of foods. To provide this assurance and help improve the performance of the packaging, innovative active and intelligent packaging concepts are being developed and applied in various countries. In Europe, however, the development and application of active and intelligent packaging systems have been limited thus far. The main reasons are legislative restrictions and a lack of knowledge about consumer acceptance, the efficacy of such systems, and the economic and environmental impact they may have. Therefore, in 1999, a European study was started within the framework of the EU FAIR R&D programme. It aims to initiate amendments to European legislation for food-contact materials to establish and implement active and intelligent systems within the current relevant regulations for packaged food in Europe. This paper presents an overview of existing active and intelligent systems and their current and future food-related applications. In addition, developments and trends in active and intelligent food packaging are discussed. The objectives and the work programme of the European project are reviewed and the results obtained so far are presented. The benefits for both the European consumer and the European food and food-packaging industries are highlighted.Chemicals/CAS: Free Radical Scavengers

A liquid chromatographic method with evaporative mass detection (EMD) is described for the determination of paraffins in food contact materials that do not contain polyolefin oligomers, or paraffins migrating from these materials into fatty food simulants or certain simple foods. A normal-phase column operating at maximum column efficiency separates nonparaffinic and paraffinic materials without resolving the latter into individual components, and EMD is used to quantitate the paraffins. An on-line qualitative method that uses liquid chromatography/gas chromatography with flame ionization detection discriminates between paraffin waxes and oils in food contact materials, food simulants, and certain simple foods; a Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometric qualitative method also discriminates between waxes and oils, but is usually restricted to food contact materials that do not contain polyolefins and to migration experiments with organic solvents as fatty food simulants (with some other fatty food simulants, paraffin type must then be identified in the food contact material). Chemicals/CAS: Paraffin, 8002-74-2Chemicals/CAS: Paraffin, 8002-74-2

Functional barriers form parts of multi-layer packaging materials, which are deemed to protect the food from migration of a broad range of contaminants, e.g. those associated with reused packaging. Often, neither the presence nor the identity of the contaminants is known, so that safety assessment of the materials has to rely on predictive tools. Several complementary freeware described here allow one to model diffusion in multi-layer films. These tools require the input of parameters that are not easy to determine or predict. Previous work has focused on the prediction of diffusion coefficients at storage temperatures of packaging in contact with food. However, many other kinetic and thermodynamic parameters are needed to describe transport properties during the processing of a material at high temperature and during its shelf-life. All parameters needed for the calculations are discussed. In order to propose default values, the approach consists of (1) reviewing the available literature data, (2) running experiments on polypropylene, polyethylene and poly(ethylene vinyl alcohol) in typical conditions (separately diffusion during processing and migration) and (3) simulating numerical sets for typical situations. Several freeware are proposed to simulate migration from multi-layers and functional barriers using the default parameters.

The objective of this study was to develop a comprehensive package of quality assurance criteria for use by industry and regulatory authorities for ensuring the quality and safety-in-use (sensory, microbiological and chemical) of reused plastics for food packaging. The study included thermal degradation effects, flavour carry-over caused by flavour and off-flavour substances, the influence of washing processes on the materials, and the efficiency of washing processes in removing off-flavour substances and surrogate substances representing misuse chemicals as might be put in bottles by consumers. The microbial safely of the refillable plastic articles in relation to commercial washing processes and the industrial procedures applied has also been investigated. Lastly, the suitability of laboratory procedures using strips of bottle material for predicting the sorption and washing properties of refillable plastic bottles has been studied. In general it is concluded that reuse of the articles does not significantly influence any of the properties investigated. Neither the chemical, physical nor surface properties seem to be significantly influenced by repeated washing. It can be concluded, however, that it is very likely that most of the articles investigated will cause flavour carry-over to a new filling if they are contaminated with strongly flavoured products. Finally it can be concluded that the procedures evaluated can serve as a basis for future legislation on refillable articles, but for several procedures (like quick predictive testing with strips) more investigation is required to create a more solid basis. Chemicals/CAS: Plastics; polycarbonate, 25766-59-0; Polycarboxylate Cement; Polyethylene Terephthalates; Polypropylenes

An experimental study was carried out to establish whether the draft EEC method for the determination of the global migration of constituents from plastics packaging materials into fatty food stimulants could be applied to all plastics, including lacquers and laminates. Some difficulties were encountered in the use of the EEC method for melamine, for hotmelt-coated packaging materials and for laminates containing one or more layers of materials sensitive to moisture, such as paper, cardboard or regenerated cellulose film. Chemicals/CAS: cellulose, 61991-22-8, 68073-05-2, 9004-34-6; melamine, 108-78-1, 25778-04-5; Dietary Fats; Plastics

This paper gives an overview of the legal consequences of a new EU framework regulation on food contact materials which includes controls on active and intelligent packaging. Recent developments in active and intelligent packaging systems are described, two examples of which aim at achieving improvements in quality and safety of food products. The first one is an on-command preservative-releasing packaging system. The second system is an intelligent concept, based on the development of a non-invasive microbial growth sensor to monitor the sterility of food products. © 2005 Taylor & Francis.

A storage study of orange juice packed in oxygen scavenging (OS) film and oxygen barrier film was conducted to determine the extent of ascorbic acid loss due to oxygen as a function of time and temperature. The initial concentration of ascorbic acid in the orange juice was 374 mg/l and this was found to decrease by 74 and 104 mg/l after 3 days of storage at 25°C in the OS and oxygen barrier film, respectively. This rapid loss in ascorbic acid correlated well with the amount of oxygen initially present in the headspace and that dissolved in the juice. The loss of ascorbic acid also correlated with an increase in the browning of the juice, where the extent of browning was found to be lower for the juice packed in the OS film than that packed in the oxygen barrier material. The rapid removal of oxygen was found to be an important factor in sustaining a higher concentration of ascorbic acid over long storage times. Crown Copyright © 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Publications on the use of Quality Function Deployment (QFD) for the development of food products state that the method is potentially a useful tool. The use of QFD would enlarge the chance of success, produce higher quality products and decrease the cost and the development time. However, a scrutinous evaluation of the available literature dealing with the use of QFD for food product development reveals that the number of examples of QFD used on the actual development or improvement of food products is limited. Combined with our own experiences we conclude that application of QFD in the food industry is more complicated than current literature suggests. However, QFD might prove useful if adaptations to the method are made and the specific characteristics of food ingredients taken into account. © 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

'Active and intelligent' (A&I) food packaging is based on a deliberate interaction of the packaging with the food and/or its direct environment. This article presents: (i) the main types of materials developed for food contact; (ii) the global market and the future trends of active and intelligent packaging with a special emphasis on safety concerns and assessment; and (iii) the EU Legislation and compliance testing of these novel food packaging technologies. © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

A new experimental procedure for incorporation of model contaminants in polymers was developed as part of a general scheme for testing the efficiency of functional barriers in food packaging. The aim was to progressively pollute polymers in a controlled fashion up to a high level in the range of 1000 ppm and use them as input for the core layer of a tri-layer package, in order to monitor migration phenomena difficult to study in real conditions. To this end, a contamination recipe was initially formulated by a set of selected surrogates. The experimental procedure developed, led to satisfactory results as far as homogeneity and final concentration in the polymer s concerned. High temperature data were also used in order to evaluate the efficiency of typical thermoforming processes in reducing possible volatile and non-volatile substances from recycled polymeric materials.

The influence of environmental factors (product composition and storage conditions) on the selection, growth rate and metabolic activity of the bacterial flora is presented for meat (pork and beef) and cooked, cured meat products. The predominant bacteria associated with spoilage of refrigerated beef and pork, are Brochothrix thermosphacta, Carnobacterium spp., Enterobacteriaceae, Lactobacillus spp., Leuconostoc spp., Pseudomonas spp. and Shewanella putrefaciens. The main defects in meat are off-odours and off-flavours, but discolouration and gas production also occur. Bacteria associated with the spoilage of refrigerated meat products, causing defects such as sour off-flavours, discolouration, gas production, slime production and decrease in pH, consist of B. thermosphacta, Carnobacterium spp, Lactobacillus spp, Leuconostoc spp. and Weissella spp. Analysis of spoilage as measured by bacterial and chemical indicators is discussed. It is concluded that a multivariate approach based on spectra of chemical compounds, may be helpful in order to analyse spoilage, at least for spoilage caused by lactic acid bacteria. The consequences of bacteria-bacteria interactions should be evaluated more.

The behaviour of two commercial oxygen-scavenging products with respect to migration of active ingredients into foodstuffs was investigated. Migrants were identified, and by using appropriate analytical methods, migration was determined in a variety of liquid, solid or gelled food simulants and foods. Simulants were chosen to cover a range of water activities and viscosities. Foods and the gelled food simulant agar were packed with and without vacuum, and with the oxygen scavenger in various locations relative to the packed food. The main migrants, as identified by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive spectrometry were Na+ and Cl- in non-acidic aqueous simulants, and Na+, Cl- and Fe2+ in 3% acetic acid. Migration into aqueous simulants exceeded the current European Union limit for total migration from plastic materials (assumed to be currently applicable to these systems) and was probably excessive by any reasonable standard. However, neither oxygen scavenger appeared to release significant quantities of migrants into solid foods when the scavenger was properly located in the package and the packing process does not favour the contents becoming wet by water released from the food.

When plastics are collected for recycling, possibly contaminated articles might be recycled into food packaging, and thus the contaminants might subsequently migrate into the food. Multilayer functional barriers may be used to delay and to reduce such migration. The contribution of the work reported here is to establish reference values (at 40°C) of diffusion coefficients and of activation energies to predict the functional barrier efficiency of a broad range of polymers (polyolefins, polystyrene, polyamide, PVC, PET, PVDC, [ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer], polyacrylonitrile and [ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer]). Diffusion coefficients (D) and activation energies (Ea) were measured and were compiled together with literature data. This allowed identification of new trends for the log D=f(molecular weight) relationships. The slopes were a function of the barrier efficiency of the polymer and temperature. The apparent activation energy of diffusion displayed two domains of variation with molecular weight (M). For low M (gases), there was little variation of Ea. Focusing on larger molecules, high barrier polymers displayed a larger dependence of Ea with M. The apparent activation energy decreased with T. These results suggest a discontinuity between rubbery and glassy polymers. © 2006 Taylor & Francis. Chemicals / CAS: ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer, 24937-78-8; ethylene vinyl alcohol copolymer, 25067-34-9; polyacrylonitrile, 25014-41-9, 63231-45-8; polyamide, 63428-83-1; polyethylene terephthalate, 25038-59-9, 9003-68-3; polystyrene, 9003-53-6; polyvinylchloride, 9002-86-2; rubber, 9006-04-6; vinylidene chloride, 25323-30-2, 75-35-4; Acrylic Resins; ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer, 25067-34-9; ethylenevinylacetate copolymer, 24937-78-8; Nylons; PL 732, 83136-87-2; Plastics; polyacrylonitrile, 25014-41-9; Polyenes; Polyethylene Terephthalates; Polymers; Polystyrenes; Polyvinyl Chloride, 9002-86-2; Polyvinyls

Functional barriers are multilayer structures deemed to prevent migration of some chemicals released by food-contact materials into food. In the area of plastics packaging, different migration behaviours of mono- and multilayer structures are assessed in terms of lag time and of their influence of the solubility of the migrants in food simulants. Whereas barriers to oxygen or to aromas must prevent the diffusion of these compounds under conditions of use, a functional barrier must also be efficient under processing conditions, to prevent diffusion of substances when the polymer layers are in contact at high (processing) temperatures. Diffusion in melted polymers at high temperatures is much slower for glassy polymers, than in polymers that are rubbery at ambient temperature. To evaluate the behaviour of functional barriers under conditions of use, a set of reference diffusion coefficients in the 40-60°C range were determined for 14 polymers. Conditions for accelerated migration tests are proposed based on worst-case activation energy in the 40-60°C range. For simulation of migration, numerical models are available. The rules derived from the models can be used both by industry (to optimize a material in terms of migration) or by risk assessors. Differences in migration behaviour between mono- and multilayer materials are discussed. © 2005 Taylor & Francis. Chemicals / CAS: Alkanes; chlorobenzene, 108-90-7; Chlorobenzenes; Dibutyl Phthalate, 84-74-2; Dimethyl Sulfoxide, 67-68-5; nonane, 111-84-2; Polymers; Polypropylenes

Bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE) is an epoxide that is used as a starting substance in the manufacture of can coatings for food-contact applications. Following migration from the can coating into food, BADGE levels decay and new reaction products are formed by reaction with food ingredients. The significant decay of BADGE was demonstrated by liquid chromatographic (LC) analysis of foodstuffs, that is, tuna, apple puree, and beer, spiked with BADGE before processing and storage. Life-science inspired analytical approaches were successfully applied to study the reactions of BADGE with food ingredients, for example, amino acids and sugars. An improved mass balance of BADGE was achieved by selective detection of reaction products of BADGE with low molecular weight food components, using a successful combination of stable isotopes of BADGE and analysis by LC coupled to fluorescence detection (FLD) and high-resolution mass spectrometric (MS) detection. Furthermore, proteomics approaches showed that BADGE also reacts with peptides (from protein digests in model systems) and with proteins in foods. The predominant reaction center for amino acids, peptides, and proteins was cysteine. © 2010 American Chemical Society.

Patiënten met een voedselallergie hebben gemiddeld één keer per jaar een onverwachte allergische ¡eactie. Een belangrijke bron van problemen is de onbedoelde aanwezigheid van allergenen in levensmiddelen als gevolg van kruiscontaminatie. De huidige wijze van waarschuwen, bijvoorbeeld door mededelingen als "Kan mogelijk sporen bevatten van ...", ook wel May Contain-vermelding genoemd, blijkt een slechte correlatie te vertonen met de aan- ofafwezigheid van een voedselallergeen door kmiscontaminatie. Daardoor nemen allergische patiënten de waarschuwingen niet altijd meer serieus met alle risico's van dien. In internationaal verband wordt daarom gewerkt aan het ontwikkelen van een nieuwe richtlijn voor de møy contøin-vermelding op het etiket op basis van wetenschappelijk gefundeerde actiegrenswaarden. DiI zal leiden tot uitbreiding van de productkeuze voor allergische patiënten. Het is belangrijk dat artsen en diëtisten op de hoogte zljnvan deze ontwikkelingen, zodarzij te zijner tijd de adviezen kunnen eanpassen aan de nieuwe situatie.