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An elevated core temperature is one of the underlying factors responsible for a decrease of performance during exercise in a hot environment. Therefore, strategies that minimise the rise in core temperature during exercise in the heat are likely to be effective in enhancing exercise performance. There are several strategies to minimise this negative effect. Ensuring adequate hydration prior to and during exercise has been shown to enhance performance in heat. Furthermore, heat acclimatisation will reduce the rise in body temperature and improve tolerance to heat stress. There are several ways of acclimatising for competition in the heat. One is to live and to train in a climate similar to that expected at the competition venue. Another approach is to live at home and to acclimate by training in an artificial climate. 80% of the acclimatisation generally occurs after 4 to 6 days. However, a complete acclimatisation of the body may take more than two weeks. Monitoring of individual responses to heat stress and of the rate and extent of acclimatisation is an essential part of preparation for competition in the heat. Regular monitoring of body mass, morning heart rate and core temperature can provide useful information on the athlete's acclimatisation status.

Background:As sodium, potassium and fluid intake are related to hypertension, an established risk factor for renal cell cancer (RCC), they may be independent risk factors for RCC.Methods:The Netherlands Cohort Study (NLCS) with case-cohort design included 120 852 participants aged 55-69 years. At baseline, diet and lifestyle were assessed with questionnaires. After 17.3 years of follow-up, 485 RCC cases and 4438 subcohort members were available for analyses.Results:Sodium intake increased RCC risk (P-trend=0.03), whereas fluid and potassium intake did not. For high sodium and low fluid intake, the RCC risk additionally increased (P-interaction=0.02).Conclusion:Sodium intake is a potential risk factor for RCC, particularly if fluid consumption is low. © 2014 Cancer Research UK.

Background: Nutritional factors exert promising actions on the skin, but only scant information is available on the modulating effects of physiologic concentrations of nutrients on the skin condition of humans. Objective: The objective was to evaluate whether nutrient concentrations in serum and diet are associated with the skin condition of humans. Design: A cross-sectional study was conducted in which data on serum concentrations of nutrients, dietary intake of nutrients, and the hydration, sebum content, and surface pH of skin were obtained from 302 healthy men and women. Skin condition was measured with the use of noninvasive techniques. Dietary intake was assessed with 2 complementary food-frequency questionnaires. Multiple regression analysis was used to evaluate associations of serum vitamins and carotenoids and of dietary micro- and macronutrients with skin condition. Results: After adjustment for potential confounders, including sex, age, and smoking, statistically significant associations were shown in the total population between serum vitamin A and skin sebum content and surface pH and between the dietary intake of total fat, saturated fat, monounsaturated fat, and skin hydration. Monounsaturated fat intake was also associated with surface pH. Associations between serum β-cryptoxanthin and skin hydration and between surface pH and fluid and calcium intakes were observed in men only. Conclusion: Several associations between nutrients in serum and diet and skin condition were observed, indicating that changes in baseline nutritional status may affect skin condition.

The embryotoxicity/teratogenicity of γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD) was examined in Wistar Crl:(WI)WU BR rats. γ-CD was fed at dietary concentrations of 0, 1.5, 5, 10, and 20% to groups of 25 pregnant female rats from day 0 to 21 of gestation. A comparison group received a diet with 20% lactose. The additions to the diet of γ-CD and lactose were made at the expense of pregelatinized potato starch. Body weight and food and water intake were recorded during the treatment period. The rats were killed on day 21 and examined for standard parameters of reproductive performance. The fetuses were examined for signs of toxic and teratogenic effects. Generally, γ-CD was well tolerated and no deaths occurred in any group. Weight gain and food consumption were similar in all groups during gestation, except for a slightly reduced food intake in the 20% γ-CD group from day 0 to 16. Water intake was similar in all γ-CD groups; in the lactose group, it was significantly higher than in the control group. Reproductive performance was not affected by the γ-CD treatment. Examination of the fetuses for external, visceral, and skeletal alterations did not reveal any fetotoxic, embryotoxic, or teratogenic effects of γ-CD. In conclusion, no adverse effects were observed at γ-CD intakes of up to about 20% of the diet (approximately 11 g/kg body wt/day). Chemicals/CAS: Cyclodextrins; gamma-cyclodextrin, 17465-86-0; gamma-Cyclodextrins; Teratogens

The toxicity of γ-cyclodextrin (γ-CD), a cyclic polymer of eight α-1,4-linked glucopyranosyl units with potential applications as a food ingredient, was examined in a 2-week pilot study followed by a 13-week oral toxicity study in Wistar rats. In the 2-week study, the test substance was administered to groups of 5 male rats at dietary levels of 0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%. In the 13-week study, groups of 20 rats/sex received diets with 0, 1.5, 5, or 20% γ-CD. In each study, a comparison group receiving a diet with 20% lactose also was included. The 13-week study also included satellite groups of 10 rats/sex for the control and 20% γ-CD groups. These satellite groups were kept on a standard, cereal-based rodent diet for a 4-week recovery period after termination of the treatment period. Parameters measured during the two studies were clinical signs, body weights, food and water intake, clinicochemical parameters, organ weights, and gross observation at necropsy. In the 13-week study, ophthalmoscopic and hematological examinations, urine and feces analyses, and histopathological examination of standard organs and tissues were conducted. There were no treatment-related mortalities in either study. Soft stools and, in the 13-week study,infrequent occurrences of diarrhea were noted in the lactose group at the beginning of treatment. Among the γ-CD groups, soft stools occurred in only a few animals of the high-dose groups (≤10% γ-CD) during the first few days of treatment. Mean body weights tended to be slightly reduced in males of the 20% γ-CD and 20% lactose groups. However, food efficiency was not affected by treatment except in the 13-week study in males of the 20% γ-CD group during the first week of treatment. The hematological examinations and the semiquantitative urinalyses (conducted in the 13-week study) and the clinicochemical investigations (both studies) did not reveal any changes that could be attributed to γ-CD treatment. Except for a slight cecal enlargement, which is commonly observed in rodents upon ingestion of incompletely absorbed carbohydrates, organ weights did not exhibit relevant changes as a result of γ-CD treatment. On histopathological examination (13-week study), no treatment-related abnormalities were found. In conclusion, the ingestion of γ-CD for 13 weeks at dietary levels of up to 20% (corresponding to intakes of 11.4 and 12.7 g/kg body wt/day for male and female rats, respectively) was well tolerated and did not produce any signs of toxicity. Chemicals/CAS: Cyclodextrins; gamma-cyclodextrin, 17465-86-0; gamma-Cyclodextrins; Lactose, 63-42-3

Background: The increased threat of nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) weapons underlines the need of protective clothing and gas masks, but this may impair performance. Thus, attention should be focused on the nutritional requirements. Hypothesis: Optimal performance is guaranteed if the supply of water and energy is adequate. Methods: Two groups of 20 trained military men (mean age 22 yr) received either an isotonic carbohydrate drink or a placebo drink (flavored water) for 24 h under simulated NBC conditions (wearing gas masks and protective clothing). Various physical and mental tests were performed at intervals and blood samples were collected three times. Results: Five men of the placebo group had to be withdrawn during the experiment because of exhaustion. The decrease in physical performance (about 15%) and mental performance (about 20%) was most apparent for the group that had only water for consumption. Conclusions: When only water is consumed, physical performance of a group of military men decreases during 24 h of simulated NBC conditions. An isotonic carbohydrate drink is recommended with respect to maintaining performance under NBC conditions. Energy restriction prior to an NBC scenario has a negative influence on performance.

Background. More than 20 studies have investigated the relation between meat and dairy consumption and breast cancer risk with conflicting results. Our objective was evaluate the risk of breast cancer associated with meat and dairy food consumption and to assess whether non-dietary risk factors modify the relation. Methods. We combined the primary data from eight prospective cohort studies from North America and Western Europe with at least 200 incident breast cancer assessment of usual food and nutrient intakes, and a validation study of dietary assessment instrument. The pooled database included 351 041 women 7379 of whom were diagnosed with invasive breast cancer during to 15 year of follow-up. Results. We found no significant association between intakes of total meat, red me white meat, total dairy fluids, or total dairy solids and breast cancer risk. Categor analyses suggested a J-shaped association for egg consumption where, comp to women who did not eat eggs, breast cancer risk was slightly decreased am women who consumed <2 eggs per week but slightly increased among women who consumed ≥1 egg per day. Conclusions. We found no significant associations between intake of meat or dairy produ and risk of breast cancer. An inconsistent relation between egg consumption risk of breast cancer merits further investigation.

The volume of cold tap water consumed is an essential element in quantitative microbial risk assessment. This paper presents a review of tap water consumption studies. Study designs were evaluated and statistical distributions were fitted to water consumption data from The Netherlands, Great Britain, Germany and Australia. We conclude that the diary is to be preferred for collecting water consumption data. If a diary is not feasible, a 24 h recall would be the best alternative, preferably repeated at least once. From the studies evaluated, the mean daily consumption varies from 0.10 L to 1.55 L. No conclusions could be drawn regarding the effects of season, age and gender on tap water consumption. Physical activity, yearly income and perceived health status were reported to influence water consumption. Comparison of the different statistical probability distribution functions of the datasets demonstrated that the Poisson distribution performed better than the lognormal distribution as suggested by Roseberry and Burmaster. For quantitative microbiological risk assessment (QMRA) it is recommended to use country-specific consumption data and statistical distributions, if available. If no country specific data are available we recommend to use the Australian distribution data from the Melbourne diary study (Poisson, λ = 3.49 glasses/d) as a conservative estimate. © IWA Publishing 2007.

The embryotoxicity/teratogenicity of α-cyclodextrin (α-CD) was examined in Wistar Crl:(WI)WU BR rats. α-CD was fed at dietary concentrations of 0, 1.5, 5, 10, or 20% to groups of 25 pregnant female rats from day 0 to 21 of gestation. An additional group received a diet with 20% lactose. The additions to the diet of α-CD and lactose were made at the expense of pregelatinized potato starch. Body weight as well as food and water intake were recorded during the treatment period. The rats were killed on day 21 and examined for standard parameters of maternal reproductive performance. The fetuses were examined for external abnormalities, body weight and crown rump length. Fetuses were examined for skeletal and visceral abnormalities. Generally, α-CD was well tolerated and no deaths occurred in any group. Weight gain and food consumption were similar in all groups during gestation, except for a slightly yet significantly increased food intake in the 20% α-CD group from day 6 to 21. Water intake was similar in all α-CD groups; in the lactose group, it was significantly higher than in the controls. Maternal reproductive performance was not affected by the α-CD treatment. Examination of the fetuses for external, visceral and skeletal changes did not reveal any fetotoxic, embryotoxic, or teratogenic effects of α-CD. In conclusion, no adverse effects were observed at α-CD intakes of up to 20% of the diet, the highest dose level tested at which the rats consumed about 13g/kg bw/day. © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction Lifestyle Triple P is a general parenting intervention which focuses on preventing further excessive weight gain in overweight and obese children. The objective of the current study was to assess the effectiveness of the Lifestyle Triple P intervention in the Netherlands. Method We used a parallel randomized controlled design to test the effectiveness of the intervention. In total, 86 child-parent triads (children 4-8 years old, overweight or obese) were recruited and randomly assigned (allocation ratio 1:1) to the Lifestyle Triple P intervention or the control condition. Parents in the intervention condition received a 14-week intervention consisting of ten 90-minute group sessions and four individual telephone sessions. Primary outcome measure was the children' s body composition (BMI z-scores, waist circumference and skinfolds). The research assistant who performed the measurements was blinded for group assignment. Secondary outcome measures were the children's dietary behavior and physical activity level, parenting practices, parental feeding style, parenting style, and parental self-efficacy. Outcome measures were assessed at baseline and 4 months (shortterm) and 12 months (long-term) after baseline. Multilevel multiple regression analyses were conducted to determine the effect of the intervention on primary and secondary outcome measures. Results No intervention effects were found on children's body composition. Analyses of secondary outcomes showed positive short-term intervention effects on children's soft-drink consumption and parental responsibility regarding physical activity, encouragement to eat, psychological control, and efficacy and satisfaction with parenting. Longer-term intervention effects were found on parent 's report of children's time spent on sedentary behavior and playing outside, parental monitoring food intake, and responsibility regarding nutrition. Conclusion Although the Lifestyle Triple P intervention showed positive effects on some parent reported child behaviors and parenting measures, no effects were visible on children's body composition or objectively measured physical activity. Several adjustments of the intervention content are recommended, for example including a booster session. © 2015 Gerards et al.

The hypothalamus is intimately involved in the regulation of food intake, integrating multiple neural and hormonal signals. Several hypothalamic nuclei contain glucose-sensitive neurons, which play a crucial role in energy homeostasis. Although a few functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies have indicated that glucose consumption has some effect on the neuronal activity levels in the hypothalamus, this matter has not been investigated extensively yet. For instance, dose-dependency of the hypothalamic responses to glucose ingestion has not been addressed. We measured the effects of two different glucose loads on neuronal activity levels in the human hypothalamus using fMRI. After an overnight fast, the hypothalamus of 15 normal weight men was scanned continuously for 37 min. After 7 min, subjects ingested either water or a glucose solution containing 25 or 75 g of glucose. We observed a prolonged decrease of the fMRI signal in the hypothalamus, which started shortly after subjects began drinking the glucose solution and lasted for at least 30 min. Moreover, the observed response was dose-dependent: a larger glucose load resulted in a larger signal decrease. This effect was most pronounced in the upper anterior hypothalamus. In the upper posterior hypothalamus, the signal decrease was similar for both glucose loads. No effect was found in the lower hypothalamus. We suggest a possible relation between the observed hypothalamic response and changes in the blood insulin concentration. © 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Systemic alkalosis has been postulated to enhance tumorigenesis, whereas systemic acidosis has been implicated to exert a favourable influence on tumour control and regression. In the present study the urinary pH was influenced by feeding acid-forming or base-forming diets, and the effect of alkaline or acid urine on the early and late progression phase of urinary bladder carcinogenicity was investigated in male Wistar rats. Bladder lesions were initiated by N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl) nitrosamine (0.05% BBN in the drinking water during 4 weeks) and promoted by sodium bicarbonate (3.4% NaHCO3 in the diet during 15 or 25 weeks). After short- (15 week) and more long-term (25 week) promotion with NaHCO3, groups of 20 rats were fed a diet containing the acidifying salt ammoniumchloride (2.1% NH4Cl) or the control diet. All surviving rats were killed after a total study duration of 52 weeks. Additional control groups were, after initiation, fed diets containing NaHCO3 and killed after 15 wk or 25 wk of promotion, or at the end of the study. In rats fed diets with added salts, water intake and the amount of urine produced were increased and the urinary density was decreased compared to rats fed control diet. During NaHCO3 feeding, urinary pH and sodium concentration were increased. During NH4Cl feeding, urinary pH was decreased and urinary chloride and calcium concentrations were increased. Initiation by BBN followed by treatment with NaHCO3 caused a high incidence of papillary/nodular hyperplasia, papillomas and carcinomas of the bladder epithelium. These lesions progressed with time or longer duration of NaHCO3 promotion. A tumour protective effect of urinary acidification by NH4Cl was not found. In fact, both acidification and prolonged alkalinization tended to aggravate the malignancy of bladder carcinomas. Copyright (C) 2000 Elsevier Science Ltd.

The present study was designed to evaluate the differential effects of dietary glucose, lactose and starch on small-intestinal morphology, organ weights, pH of chyme and haptoglobin levels in blood plasma of weaned piglets. It was hypothesised that lactose consumption would ameliorate the weaning-induced decrease in gut integrity. A total of forty-two barrows were used. Piglets were weaned at 27 (SD 0.8) d of age and weighed 8.0 (SD 0.51) kg. On the day before weaning (day -1) all pigs were blocked according to body weight and randomly assigned to seven groups (n 6 per group). The groups differed in diet and day of dissection. On the day of weaning, dissection was performed on one group of six piglets. The remaining groups were fed one of three experimental diets in which glucose, lactose or starch had been iso-energetically exchanged, supplying 24 % dietary energy. The piglets received a liquid diet (air-dry meal:water of 1:2, w/w). The piglets were given access to a maximum of dietary energy in order to prevent confounding between feed intake and villus architecture. The piglets were dissected and sampled on days 0, 3, or 10 post-weaning. The results show,that the carbohydrate source did not affect growth performance, organ weights, villus architecture, pH of chyme and plasma haptoglobin level. The weaning transition resulted in decreased villus height and increased haptoglobin levels. In the contents of the caecum and large intestine, the pH decreased after weaning. It is concluded that at least under conditions of similar feed intake and low infectious pressure, dietary lactose does not ameliorate the weaning-induced compromise of small-intestinal integrity when compared with either glucose or starch. Chemicals/CAS: glucose, 50-99-7, 84778-64-3; haptoglobin, 9087-69-8; lactose, 10039-26-6, 16984-38-6, 63-42-3, 64044-51-5; starch, 9005-25-8, 9005-84-9; water, 7732-18-5; Dietary Carbohydrates; Glucose, 50-99-7; Haptoglobins; Lactose, 63-42-3; Starch, 9005-25-8

The potential subchronic oral toxicity of isomaltulose (Palatinose®) was examined by administering this substance in the diet to groups of 20 male and 20 female Wistar rats at levels of 0, 2.5, 5 and 10% for 13 consecutive weeks. Daily clinical observations, body weight, food conversion efficiency, food and water consumption were not affected at any stage of the study. Ophthalmoscopy, haematology, clinical chemistry, urinalysis, organ weights, gross and histopathological examination, neurobehavioural observations, motor activity assessment and the results of an immunotoxicity screen did not reveal any abnormalities related to the ingestion of the test substance. In conclusion, the administration of isomaltulose at dietary levels up to 10% for 13 consecutive weeks was well tolerated without any signs of toxicity. The overall intake at this level corresponded to 7.0 and 8.1 g/kg body weight/day in male and female rats, respectively. © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. Chemicals/CAS: Isomaltose, 499-40-1; isomaltulose, 13718-94-0

β-Glucans are water-soluble cell-wall polysaccharides consisting of (1→3,1→4)-linked β-D-glucopyranosyl monomers that comprise a considerable proportion of soluble fiber from certain grains including oats and barley. Consumption of foods containing β-glucan or β-glucan-enriched fractions prepared from these grains lower serum cholesterol concentrations in humans and in animal models of hypercholesterolemia. The present study was conducted to evaluate the toxicity of β-glucan-enriched soluble fiber from barley in Wistar rats on dietary administration at concentrations of 0.7, 3.5 and 7% β-glucan for 28 days. There were no adverse effects on general condition and behavior, growth, feed and water consumption, feed conversion efficiency, red blood cell and clotting potential parameters, clinical chemistry values, and organ weights. Necropsy and histopathology findings revealed no treatment-related changes in any organ evaluated. A dose-dependent increase in full and empty cecum weight was observed. This is a common physiological response of rodents to high amounts of poorly digestible, fermentable carbohydrates, and was of no toxicological concern. The only finding of possible biological relevance was an increase in the number of circulating lymphocytes observed in males. However, the increase was not dose-dependent and was not observed in females. Results of this study demonstrated that consumption of concentrated barley β-glucan was not associated with any obvious signs of toxicity in Wistar rats even following consumption of large quantities. © 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

The vagal nerve and gut hormones CCK and GLP-1 play important roles in the control of food intake. However, it is not clear to what extent CCK and GLP-1 increase satiation by stimulating receptors located on abdominal vagal nerve endings or via receptors located elsewhere. This study aimed to further explore the relative contribution of the abdominal vagal nerve in mediating the satiating effects of endogenous CCK and GLP-1. Total subdiaphragmatic vagotomy or sham operation was combined with administration of CCK1 and GLP-1 receptor antagonists devazepide and exendin (9-39) in 12 pigs, applying an unbalanced Latin Square within-subject design. Furthermore, effects of vagotomy on preprandial and postprandial acetaminophen absorption, glucose, insulin, GLP-1 and CCK plasma concentrations were investigated.Ad libitum liquid meal intake (mean±SEM) was similar in sham and vagotomized pigs (4180±435 and 3760±810g/meal). Intake increased by about 20% after blockade of CCK1 receptors, independently of the abdominal vagal nerve. Food intake did not increase after blockade of GLP-1 receptors. Blockade of CCK1 and GLP-1 receptors increased circulating CCK and GLP-1 concentrations in sham pigs only, suggesting the existence of a vagal reflex mechanism in the regulation of plasma CCK1 and GLP-1 concentrations. Vagotomy decreased acetaminophen absorption and changed glucose, insulin, CCK and GLP-1 concentrations indicating a delay in gastric emptying. Our data show that at liquid feeding, satiation is decreased effectively by pharmacological blockade of CCK1 receptors. We conclude that regulation of liquid meal intake appears to be primarily regulated by CCK1 receptors not located on abdominal vagal nerve endings. Chemicals/CAS: cholecystokinin, 9011-97-6, 93443-27-7; devazepide, 103420-77-5; glucagon like peptide 1, 89750-14-1; glucose, 50-99-7, 84778-64-3; insulin, 9004-10-8; paracetamol, 103-90-2

Aims/hypothesis: The aim of this study was to investigate whether moderate alcohol consumption increases plasma high molecular weight (HMW) adiponectin and/or muscle oxidative capacity. Materials and methods: Eleven lean (BMI 18-25 kg/m2) and eight overweight (BMI ≥27 kg/m2) men consumed 100 ml whisky (∼32 g alcohol) or water daily for 4 weeks in a randomised, controlled, crossover trial. After each treatment period, muscle biopsies and fasting blood samples were collected. Results: Adiponectin concentrations increased (p<0.001) by 12.5% after 4 weeks of moderate alcohol consumption. Moderate alcohol consumption tended to increase HMW adiponectin by 57% (p=0.07) and medium molecular weight adiponectin by 12.5% (p=0.07), but not low molecular weight (LMW) adiponectin. Skeletal muscle citrate synthase, cytochrome c oxidase and β-3-hydroxyacyl coenzyme A dehydrogenase (β-HAD) activity were not changed after moderate alcohol consumption, but an interaction between alcohol consumption and BMI was observed for cytochrome c oxidase (p=0.072) and citrate synthase (p=0.102) activity. Among lean men, moderate alcohol consumption tended to increase cytochrome c oxidase (p=0.08) and citrate synthase activity (p=0.12) by 23 and 26%, respectively, but not among overweight men. In particular, plasma HMW adiponectin correlated positively with activities of skeletal muscle citrate synthase (r=0.64, p=0.009), cytochrome c oxidase (p=0.59, p=0.009) and β-HAD (r=0.46, p=0.056), while such correlation was not present for LMW adiponectin. Whole-body insulin sensitivity and intramyocellular triacylglycerol content were not affected by moderate alcohol consumption. Conclusions/interpretation: Moderate alcohol consumption increases adiponectin concentrations, and in particular HMW adiponectin. Concentrations of HMW adiponectin in particular were positively associated with skeletal muscle oxidative capacity. © 2007 Springer-Verlag.

Moderate alcohol consumption increases HDL cholesterol, which is involved in reverse cholesterol transport (RCT). The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of moderate alcohol consumption on cholesterol efflux, using J774 mouse macrophages and Fu5AH cells, and on other parameters in the RCT pathway. Twenty-three healthy men (45-65 years) participated in a randomized, partially diet-controlled, crossover trial. They consumed four glasses of whisky (40 g of alcohol) or water daily for 17 days. After 17 days of whisky consumption, serum capacity to induce ABCA1-dependent cholesterol efflux from J774 mouse macrophages was increased by 17.5% (P = 0.027) compared with water consumption. Plasma capacity to induce cholesterol efflux from Fu5AH cells increased by 4.6% (P = 0.002). Preβ-HDL, apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I), and lipoprotein A-I:A-II also increased by 31.6, 6.2, and 5.7% (P < 0.05), respectively, after whisky consumption compared with water consumption. Changes of cAMP-stimulated cholesterol efflux correlated (r = 0.65, P < 0.05) with changes of apoA-I but not with changes of preβ-HDL (r = 0.30, P = 0.18). Cholesterol efflux capacities from serum of lean men were higher than those from overweight men. In conclusion, this study shows that moderate alcohol consumption increases the capacity of serum to induce cholesterol efflux from J774 mouse macrophages, which may be mediated by ABCA1.

Background: Evidence exists that beverages do not trigger appropriate anticipatory physiologic responses, such as cephalic phase insulin release. Therefore, it is of interest to elucidate the food properties necessary for triggering adaptive responses. Previously, we found a prolonged dose-dependent decrease in the hypothalamic functional magnetic resonance imaging signal after ingestion of a glucose solution. Objectives: The aims of the present study were to measure the effects of sweet taste and energy content on the hypothalamic response to glucose ingestion and to measure the concomitant changes in blood glucose and insulin concentrations. Design: Five healthy, normal-weight men participated in a randomized crossover design trial. The subjects were scanned 4 times for 37 min on separate days with functional magnetic resonance imaging. After 7 min, they ingested 1 of the following 4 stimuli (300 mL of each): water (control), a glucose solution, an aspartame (sweet taste) solution, or a maltodextrin (nonsweet carbohydrate) solution. Results: Glucose ingestion resulted in a prolonged and significant signal decrease in the upper hypothalamus (P < 0.05). Water, aspartame, and maltodextrin had no such effect. Glucose and maltodextrin ingestions resulted in similar increases in blood glucose and insulin concentrations. However, only glucose triggered an early rise in insulin concentrations. Aspartame did not trigger any insulin response. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that both sweet taste and energy content are required for a hypothalamic response. The combination of sweet taste and energy content could be crucial in triggering adaptive responses to sweetened beverages. © 2005 American Society for Nutrition.

The oral toxicity of recombinant human lactoferrin (rhLF) produced in the milk of transgenic cows was investigated in Wistar rats by daily administration via oral gavage for 13 consecutive weeks, 7 days per week. The study used four groups of 20 rats/sex/dose. The control group received physiological saline and the three test groups received daily doses of 200, 600 and 2000 mg of rhLF per kg body weight. Clinical observations, growth, food consumption, food conversion efficiency, water consumption, neurobehavioural testing, ophthalmoscopy, haematology, clinical chemistry, renal concentration test, urinalysis, organ weights and gross examination at necropsy and microscopic examination of various organs and tissues were used as criteria for detecting the effects of treatment. Overall, no treatment-related, toxicologically significant changes were observed. The few findings that may be related to the treatment (lower cholesterol in high-dose females, lower urinary pH in high-dose males and females and very slightly higher kidney weight in high-dose females) were considered of no toxicological significance. Based on the absence of treatment-related, toxicologically relevant changes, the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL) was considered to be at least 2000 mg/kg body weight/day. © 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.