Large language models (LLMs) are widely used tools that assist us by answering various questions. Humans implicitly use contrast as a natural way to think about and seek explanations (i.e., "Why A and not B?"). Explainability is a challenging aspect of LLMs, as we do not truly understand how good the LLM answers are. The challenge is understanding to what extent LLMs can generate effective contrastive self-explanations for users. We introduce the Contrastive Self-Explanation Method (CoSEM) to narrow the gap between LLMs and explainability. It generates contrastive self- explanations and evaluates them through automation and a user study on generality, usefulness, readability, and relevance. Our results indicate that LLMs are capable of generating effective contrastive self-explanations. Lexical analysis of contrastive explanation indicates that explanations are not less general than the text those explain, and semantic analysis shows that more complex models generalize self-explanations more consistently. Although it is challenging to evaluate contrast in self-explanations semantically, user study shows that some models (Llama3-8B) help understand the contrast. Moreover, task selection affects how readable users find the explanations, where more self-explanations on general topics (movie reviews) are more readable than more specific topics (medical diagnoses). Lastly, some models, such as Llama3-8B, excel at generating contrastive self-explanations that contain relevant information regarding input text.

The transport sector in the Netherlands is under pressure to reduce emissions, constituting about 12% of the country's total emissions, to align with the goals of the Paris Agreements. One promising solution is the adoption of hydrogen fuel cell heavy-duty trucks, particularly for long-haul transport, providing emission-free operation when sourced from renewable energy. While existing literature covers the financial and technological aspects of adopting hydrogen trucks, there is a noticeable gap concerning the social effects of this transition, which are crucial for a comprehensive evaluation of a subsidy program.
This thesis conducts a Social Cost-Benefit Analysis to assess the viability of subsidizing hydrogen fuel cell heavy-duty trucks in the Netherlands. By examining both costs and benefits, it aims to offer insights into the societal implications of transitioning from diesel to hydrogen trucks. Using a mixed-methods approach including stakeholder interviews and data analysis, the study evaluates emission reductions and social gains associated with this subsidy program.
The analysis considers two scenarios based on the future market share of hydrogen trucks and three subsidy program initiation dates (2024, 2030, and 2040), extending the assessment until 2050. Results indicate that initiating the subsidy program in 2024 yields the most favourable outcomes, yielding positive Net Present Values of 1.8 billion euros and 2.4 billion euros for the respective scenarios. Nevertheless, substantial subsidy costs are anticipated, with estimated expenses of 4 billion euros and 12 billion euros for each of the two 2024 scenarios, surpassing the government's proposed budget.
The study highlights uncertainties related to infrastructure costs and assumptions regarding economies of scale, underscoring the need for further investigation before implementing the subsidy program. Addressing these uncertainties is crucial for achieving a more precise understanding and ensuring the social viability of transitioning to hydrogen fuel cell heavy-duty trucks in the Netherlands.

The increasing dependence on technology has made society vulnerable to cyber threats, with ransomware becoming a major concern. The complex nature of the Ransomware-as-a-Service (RaaS) model makes identifying the attackers challenging. Traditional methods often rely on direct indicators, but these may not be readily available or reliable. This research explores the potential of utilizing indirect indicators to improve correlating ransomware attacks to specific threat actors. This results in the formulation of the following research question:

"If and to what extent can the analysis of indirect indicator be utilized to improve correlating ransomware attacks with cyber-threat actors?"

The research employs a mixed research approach. A literature review examines the techniques, indicators, and taxonomies used for attributing cyber-threat actors in general. Additionally, expert interviews explore differences in the attribution of ransomware threat actors compared to general cyber-threat actors. Furthermore, it highlights the need to use indirect indicators in the attribution process of ransomware threat actors. Therefore, a cybersecurity company's 2023 ransomware incident reports are analysed to understand how the ransomware attacks are investigated and how the conclusions are drawn.

This study identifies differences in attributing ransomware and general cyber-threat actors. While indirect indicators are crucial for attributing general cyber-threat actors, ransomware attackers often directly identify themselves through ransomware notes. These notes often provide access to communication channels and leak sites, offering substantial evidence for attribution.
The study also finds that Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (TTPs) tend to be generic in ransomware attacks, offering limited value for differentiating between different actors. However, based on the interviews, there is a need for a central database of observed indirect indicators to facilitate future research and attribution efforts. Consequently, the research finds some promising results for using indirect indicators in ransomware threat actor attribution. The first finding is that the TTPs are less generic as initially thought as 32\% of the techniques and 47\% of the sub-techniques were unique. In addition, analysing the specific tools and techniques used by different actors, such as Blackcat's use of "nltest" for domain trust discovery, can help identify and differentiate them. Furthermore, threat actors observed only once in ransomware attacks of 2023 often used unique techniques, potentially allowing for differentiation based on this factor.

In conclusion, this study demonstrates that analysing indirect indicators can be a valuable tool in correlating ransomware attacks to specific threat actors. While certain limitations exist, continued research and development of this approach have the potential to significantly improve our ability to identify and track ransomware attackers.

The Netherlands aims to have a carbon-neutral energy system by 2050. Hydrogen is seen as an important energy carrier that can contribute to this transition. Not only can hydrogen potentially decarbonise industry, transportation, and possibly agriculture and the built environment, but it can also be used to store electricity for longer periods. As more green hydrogen is produced over the years by electrolysis, the hydrogen demand and supply will increasingly diverge. Underground hydrogen storage can provide a solution for the imbalance between hydrogen demand and supply in both the short and long term.

For this study, a model has been constructed to simulate the Dutch electricity and hydrogen market in 2040. Four different energy systems have been modelled, differing mainly in the extent to which the Netherlands is self-sufficient in their electricity and hydrogen demand. The model is constructed in Linny-R: a graphical modelling tool specifically designed for the formulation of Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP) problems, particularly for Unit Commitment (UC) problems.

Firstly, using the model, the required underground hydrogen storage capacity in 2040 in the four different energy systems has been determined. The performance of different storage configurations, consisting of a certain number of short-cyclic salt caverns in addition to a certain policy for seasonal storage in gas fields, has been compared, and it has been concluded that only when a large installed capacity of solar and wind energy is placed in the Netherlands, the preference is for a mid-seasonal storage policy. In the other energy systems, the preference was for a low-seasonal storage policy.

The second part of the research focuses on the financial feasibility of underground hydrogen storage facilities. The average system costs and profits have been mapped out. For the most plausible energy system, it has been determined that the storage facilities in 2040, when they have to generate their income purely based on market prices, are not profitable. To recoup the investment in salt caverns, the government will need to subsidise 0.26 €/kg of hydrogen.

In addition to the insight that subsidisation will be needed to kickstart investments in underground hydrogen storage, some other important insights for policymakers have emerged. The installed capacity of hydrogen turbines has a significant effect on both the operational system costs of the entire energy system and the economic feasibility of the storage facilities. Furthermore, it has been found that in an energy system already dominated by green electricity and green hydrogen, adding additional storage facilities does not result in further CO2 reduction. As long as the carbon capture rate is limited to 90%, approximately 10,000 kton of CO2 will still be emitted annually. To become fully carbon-neutral, the Dutch government must therefore consider negative emission measures such as reforestation and ecosystem restoration.

Within the energy transition, green hydrogen stands as a key solution for decarbonizing sectors where direct electrification is not viable. This thesis focuses on the competitive landscape of hydrogen production in North-Western Europe, addressing the technological and geographical competition of locally produced green hydrogen. This research introduces a comprehensive analytical tool to assess the viability of various hydrogen production methods, which are competing value chains of European green hydrogen. By synthesizing institutional, economic, societal, and technical considerations, the model facilitates a direct comparison between different green hydrogen alternatives.

The research commenced by applying Hekkert’s (2011) TIS analysis as a tool for structural analysis to systematically map the system. The goal was to delineate its structure and identify potential key competing value chains within the scope of Europe. This initial phase involved a literature review and interviews to select value chains. The subsequent phase, which also used the TIS as a tool, focused on identifying key drivers and barriers within the system through a functional analysis, utilizing a structured approach to examine system functions. Expert interviews played a pivotal role in this stage, providing an understanding of the system's dynamics. In the last phase, the techno-economic analysis was performed by introducing barrier-driven scenarios. Allowing for insights into the cost components and the overall comparison in the levelized cost of hydrogen for every scenario.

The structural analysis showed that the European Commission set the scope with institutions, allowing for technologically mature low-carbon alternatives in this comparison. The functional analysis revealed the intricate interconnectivity of the system functions, illustrating how drivers and barriers can swiftly transform, reflecting the system's complex status. The primary barrier to green hydrogen adoption is its high cost, creating a deadlock with no demand or supply. Technological advancement and governmental intervention emerged as key solutions to this challenge. The techno-economic results show that the least cost-effective value chain is local green hydrogen, and the most cost-effective value chain is local blue hydrogen. Local green hydrogen faces challenges in competitiveness due to high energy prices and low capacity factors compared to other electrolyzer-based methods. Additionally, compared to other types, like blue hydrogen, it has higher overall investment and energy costs.

The ultimate aim is to navigate through the complexities of the hydrogen system, clarifying how various variables interconnect and influence each other. Tools like the one developed in this research provide a foundation for understanding this complexity. By understanding the impact of governmental interventions and other factors on final prices, stakeholders can engage in more strategic decision-making. To deepen the understanding of the system, it is recommended to conduct further interviews and research, exploring the alternatives within and outside the European system more comprehensively. Investigating what drives prices beyond mere economic factors will offer a clearer picture of their current status and potential future developments. This broader analysis will equip users with the insights needed to make informed decisions, considering both the economic and socio-technical dimensions that shape the hydrogen market's evolution.

Dutch road transportation networks are increasingly facing challenges regarding congestion, safety and environmental pollution. These challenges are intensified by increased urbanization and a growing need for connectivity . In the past, the remedy to most of these challenges laid in expanding the physical infrastructure through new asphalt. Nowadays, information and communication technologies increasingly play a role in infrastructure management by utilizing the available infrastructure more efficiently. With that, Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems (C-ITS), presents a new beacon of hope. Through C-ITS, vehicles and infrastructure components are connected to realize a safe and efficient flow of traffic. However, the realization and implementation of C-ITS is hindered by legal, technological, economic and organizational challenges that need resolving. One of the main challenges is the absence of a sufficing robust network infrastructure that facilitates the data transmission across devices and road users. Mobile Network Operators (MNOs), are believed to occupy a central role in the future, designing, building and operating these network infrastructures. However, MNOs are already facing challenges in making current 5G network business models profitable. New large investments already loom for MNOs to serve C-ITS, however, without profitable business models, further investments can be pushed to the future which can cause further delay of the deployment of C-ITS. Therefore this thesis aimed to identify conditions and potential forms of collaboration among Dutch MNOs for C-ITS ready networks. A literature review identified potential collaborative forms between private competing companies and provided an initial overview of conditions that can stimulate collaboration. Subsequent interview with stakeholders from the Dutch mobile network operator domain further refined these conditions and identified potential forms of collaboration that potentially can deliver viable collaborative efforts: knowledge sharing, joint R&D and passive network sharing. The research indicated that the creation of a shared vision across both the public and private domain is crucial to get an institutional environment that supports collaboration. On top of that, a sense of ‘needing each other’ needs to emerge between MNO’s in the form of individually unattainable profits. Although, regulation can also act as a pushing mechanism towards collaboration, it can’t force the creation of such networks. The realization of profitable business models is thus crucial for MNOs to build the networks. Further problems in collaboration come from severe distrust among MNOs who also have collaborative experiences which resulted in conflicts and opportunistic behavior. A public body can act as an independent ‘referee’ to mitigate these potential conflicts in future collaborative efforts. With that, a lot of challenges still need to be overcome to realize collaboration between MNOs which makes that collaborative efforts are unlikely to succeed in the near future.

This thesis explores sustainable and economically viable decarbonization pathways for the European ammonia industry. Through literature reviews, expert interviews, and detailed analyses, it addresses the industry's need to transition while maintaining competitiveness. Findings suggest that options like Autothermal Reforming (ATR) with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) are financially feasible, while biobased alternatives and electrolyzers face cost challenges but hold future potential. The study emphasizes the impact of the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) on global decarbonization efforts, reshaping trade dynamics. Policymakers must consider potential industry relocation and ensure food security amidst changing landscapes. Overall, this research provides a roadmap for sustainable decarbonization and underscores the importance of collaborative efforts for the European ammonia industry's future.

The automotive industry is transitioning to electric vehicles (EVs), creating a higher electricity demand. Concurrently, the utility sector is shifting to a renewable energy system. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology allows EVs to both consume and deliver electricity to the grid, introducing a dynamic interaction. However, integrating EVs into the grid raises challenges related to grid safety, such as the risk of overloading. To address this, additional technical specifications are needed. The EV charging industry relies greatly on international standards. Therefore, market players seek clear guidelines for products enabling bidirectional power flows. However, technical requirements specific to V2G systems remain unspecified or divergent, creating obstacles for technology development and implementation by the industry. Harmonisation and standardisation of technical specifications are considered effective means for overcoming these challenges. However, existing literature lacks insights into the necessity and realisation of harmonisation. This study fills this gap by exploring the extent, reasons, and coordination efforts required for harmonisation of technical requirements specific to V2G. Particularly, this study investigates barriers stemming from the technical implementation of V2G and their impact on the adoption by key stakeholders.

An open-minded approach following the grounded theory principles identified primary obstacles in the technical implementation of V2G. The grounded theory approach included conducting semi-structured interviews with ten participants, which helped explore perspectives and needs of five key stakeholder groups. In addition, a comprehensive framework is consulted to provide a theoretical lens assisting the interpretation and analysis of the empirical results. Integrating the widely adopted Institutional Analysis & Development (IAD) framework and Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) aided in identifying and understanding the interplay between institutional arrangements, such as technical requirements and standards, and technology adoption. This novel approach has proven to be valuable in analysing the relationships between micro-level interactions (IAD) and macro-level influences (MLP).

This study has shown it is unclear to niche actors how to become "V2G-ready" due to a lack of clear guidelines, especially related to the charging standard (AC or DC), the communication standard between system operators (DSOs) and charge point operators (CPOs), grid connection codes, and who should be in control of discharging schedules. Requirements deficiency and disparities and the discussion on the control authority show constraining effects on the conditions for pilot projects. Realistic pilot conditions are shown to be essential for scaling V2G activities, and pilot projects are considered vital for exploring the possibilities of V2G technology. However, lacking conditions obstruct the development of definitive V2G configurations and designs necessary for large-scale diffusion. This study has shown two chicken-and-egg dilemmas play a significant role in the slow adoption of V2G. Niche actors are awaiting each other to continue their research and development activities. EV manufacturers demand V2G-compatible EV supply equipment (EVSE) to experiment with V2G technology, while EVSE manufacturers and CPOs await V2G-compatible EVs. Moreover, niche actors await definitive technical standards, while standardisation organisations and regulators are reliant on insights retrieved from practical experimentation to develop effective standards and regulations. These dynamics require a coordinated approach to empower and stabilise the development of V2G technology and enable widespread diffusion. Niche actors should be at the front of the developments, so active involvement with standardisation and requirement-setting is advised. Besides, collaborations between niche actors across Europe should be stimulated to prevent market fragmentation and segmentation, since these effects are detrimental to all V2G actors and the system in general. Therefore, the barriers identified pose a significant influence on pilot conditions, constraining experimentation, implementation, and the overall development of V2G technology.

The irreversible effects of climate change have led to a significant increase in citizen-led and initiated local energy cooperatives. Playing a crucial role in the shift to renewable energy, these cooperatives are evolving from informal community groups to structured organisations. Their success relies on co-creation, a collaborative process in which stakeholders and citizens join forces to improve efficient decision-making, build trust and promote shared responsibility. This leads to creating effective solutions and achieving collective goals across projects and sectors.

This thesis examines the role of co-creation in local energy cooperatives and highlights its importance in promoting sustainable energy practices and empowering citizens. It focuses on investigating co-creation within the energy cooperatives of the Metropolitan Region Rotterdam The Hague (MRDH) and connects theoretical concepts with practical applications in energy transition. The central research question is: ”In what ways does co-creation manifest within local energy cooperatives in the Metropolitan Region Rotterdam The Hague?”

A literature review was conducted using the PRISMA method and snowball technique to understand the academic perspectives of co-creation, especially in energy transition. This helped identify the scope of the thesis and gaps in current academic knowledge. The thesis contains two theoretical frameworks. The first, from Puerari et al. (2018), examines the dynamics of co-creation in local communities and identifies five key elements: intended purpose, process type, ownership, motivations and incentives, and spaces and places. This research applied these elements to understand co-creation in MRDH’s local energy cooperatives through qualitative case study analysis. The analysis reveals the cooperatives’ commitment to fossil-free energy and their encouragement of citizen participation through a mix of formal and informal methods, addressing different motivations and adopting a shared ownership model to promote community involvement.

The second framework consists of six criteria that define co-creation activities. These criteria are developed in this study, and derived from academic literature. These criteria include shared goals, active participation, equality and inclusiveness, iterative processes, value creation and mutual learning. Subsequently, the study used these criteria to evaluate the activities of energy cooperatives and assess their alignment with the concept of co-creation. Through interviews and observations, four key cooperative activities were identified: advisory services, information generation, renewable energy production and stakeholder engagement. While these activities meet the criteria for co-creation, there are opportunities for improvement in almost all areas of co-creation to fully realise the potential of these activities.

The findings suggest that cooperatives should organise regular stakeholder discussions, introduce paid functions, make more effective use of physical spaces, promote diversity and develop digital platforms for knowledge sharing. Policymakers can support these cooperatives by recognising their contributions, encouraging professional development and encouraging flexibility and innovation. Future research recommendations address the limitations of this study such as regional focus, time constraints and possible subjectivity of the qualitative method. Suggestions include expanding the geographical scope, involving a wider range of stakeholders, using mixed methods and testing the recommended strategies in different contexts.

In summary, this research is an important step in understanding co-creation manifestation within local energy cooperatives. It suggests strategies through which these cooperatives, in collaboration with policymakers, can effectively contribute to environmental sustainability and climate change mitigation.

As one of the largest innovation hubs in the world, the Brainport Eindhoven region experiences significant economic and population growth. However, with this success comes a challenge: the transportation infrastructure is increasingly strained, with new housing developments and population growth escalating the transport demand. The economic growth includes plans by hightech giant ASML to roughly double its workforce in Veldhoven to 35,000 by 2030, which poses significant consequences for accessibility, environmental quality, and safety unless effective policy measures are implemented...

This thesis examines the pressing environmental issue stemming from the accumulation of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), particularly within the automotive sector. Despite directives from the European Commission aiming to promote a circular economy, challenges persist in effectively managing WEEE, particularly in End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs). Current dismantling practices often lead to the loss of valuable materials, exacerbating environmental and health risks. Recognizing the need for improved data sharing, this research investigates the potential of the International Data Spaces (IDS) initiative in enhancing WEEE management within the automotive industry, with a focus on ELV dismantling.

The primary research question centers on how IDS can facilitate WEEE information exchange between manufacturers and dismantlers within the automotive sector. The study is structured into five phases to comprehensively address this question:

Exploratory Phase: This phase identifies current barriers to WEEE information sharing in the automotive industry, employing the Circular Economy (CE) monitoring framework for analysis.

Requirements Elicitation Phase: Through desk research, legislative analysis, and stakeholder interviews, essential requirements for effective information sharing are identified, considering barriers, legislative mandates, and dismantlers' perspectives.

Application Phase: The feasibility of meeting identified requirements using IDS is explored, drawing on academic literature and documentation from the IDS initiative.

Concluding Phase: Findings from previous stages are integrated to address the main research question regarding IDS's role in facilitating WEEE information sharing.

Discussion Phase: The final phase evaluates the research approach, discusses conclusions, limitations, and suggests avenues for future research.

Barriers to WEEE information sharing within the automotive industry encompass incomplete documentation, lack of harmonization, information gaps, inconsistent data entry, and restricted accessibility. These findings inform the elicitation of requirements, emphasizing the need for detailed dismantling information, interoperability, and user-friendly interfaces.

Evaluation of IDS demonstrates its potential in providing dismantlers access to fundamental information, simplifying data access processes, ensuring data sovereignty, facilitating interoperability, and supporting initiatives like the circularity vehicle passport. However, its effectiveness relies on stakeholder participation and regulatory support.

In conclusion, this thesis proposes IDS as a solution to enhance WEEE information sharing in the automotive industry, contributing to sustainable development and advancing scientific understanding. Further research is recommended to address implementation challenges and develop specific ontologies tailored to the automotive sector.

In the European Union, heating and cooling account for 50% of the total energy consumption and half of the carbon emissions, as 75% of the energy is still supplied by fossil fuels. In the Netherlands, energy transition decision-makers are sailing in the dark in an attempt to realize the heat transition in high-density areas. How can market parties optimize the mix of heat supply technologies, while responding to policies and network requirements? To adequately manage renewable energy on a large scale, flexibility measures need to be in place across all components of the system, from generation to distribution, to supply and demand. This master thesis is part of the TU Delft research project "DEMOSES" and is done in collaboration with the energy company Eneco. The project aims to study to what extent the integration of heat storage and additional heat sources can enhance the flexibility and long-term sustainability of the South-Holland district heating network. This is done by developing and analyzing a district heating network model of South-Holland, and expanding the network with additional heat sources and heat storage. Additional heat sources lead to increased flexibility and sustainability, while additional heat storage primarily increases only the flexibility. Looking ahead to 2030, to realize the heat transition in South-Holland, many additional sources and storage should be added in the following years to realize a flexible, sustainable, and affordable district heating network. However, with the proposal of the Collective Heat System Act, the question is whether investments in additional heat sources and storage are attractive for energy companies when ownership of these assets in the following years cannot be guaranteed.

Given the building sector's significant impact on energy consumption and CO2 emissions, there is a clear need for a sustainable solution. Here, smart building technologies are emerging as a promising response, as they offer the potential to improve operational efficiency while reducing environmental impact. However, the development of smart building solutions for the building sector often follows a technology-driven approach, in which technical feasibility and overall system optimization are prioritized over occupants’ perspectives, preferences, and behavior. As a result, building systems and technologies are not fully aligned with how occupants use and interact with these spaces. Bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application is, therefore, crucial for unlocking the full potential of smart building technology.

This study focused on enhancing our understanding of the interaction between smart building technology and users. A specific focus is placed on climate control technology within the broader landscape of smart building systems. By employing an exploratory approach, in which a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods was utilized, smart building users’ preferences and behavioral mechanisms were explored. Through semi-structured interviews with smart building occupants, the study delved deeper into understanding the motivations, barriers, and other aspects of occupant behavior and interactions with smart building technology. Additionally, insights from interviews with industry experts provided valuable perspectives on which key factors contribute to the increased adoption of smart building technology. These qualitative findings were complemented by quantitative data collected through an online survey (n=92), which allowed trends and preferences to be identified from a larger group of smart building occupants.

The study showed that the successful implementation of smart building technology goes beyond mere technological details. It provided empirical insights into the preferences and behavioral mechanisms of smart building occupants, filling a gap in the existing literature. By exploring these aspects, the research deepened our understanding of user interactions within smart buildings. Consequently, it advocates for a user-centered approach to smart building initiatives, emphasizing the importance of understanding human preferences and incorporating user feedback to effectively adapt technology to their specific needs and routines. However, the study revealed a diverse range of user preferences and motivations regarding interaction with smart building technology, including preferences regarding control levels, system feedback, transparency, flexibility, and interface design. This diversity highlighted the absence of a one-size-fits-all approach to implementing smart building technology. Consequently, specific practical recommendations were developed to guide stakeholders in smart building initiatives, emphasizing a more user-centered implementation that ensures adaptability to the unique needs and preferences of building users.

Plastic is one of the major pollutants in the world and currently, more than 300 million tons of plastic are produced worldwide (Miandad et al. 2019). Since only 9.5% of plastic waste is being recycled, littering has caused a lot of non-recyclable plastics (NRP) that wander around damaging the environment and ending up in landfills, oceans and other natural environments (Benavides et al. 2017). This overload of plastic demands action to prevent a worsening situation. Therefore, alternative use of plastic waste is sought whereas a promising solution is to use plastic waste as a fuel for transportation. Plastic waste can be converted into various types of fuels, such as gasoline, diesel and jet fuels. To create these fuels, plastic waste undergoes a process called pyrolysis (Manickavelan et al. 2022). This research is done by first gathering information on the social influences on choice-making when consumers have to choose a fuel type. With this information, a survey is constructed existing of a stated choice experiment. With the results of the survey, further information is sought on the policy frameworks and infrastructures necessary for the implementation of a plastic-based fuel and the environmental impacts of using plastic as a fuel, as these aspects seem to impact the consumers most considering a fuel choice. Combining and analysing the information and degree of importance of each attribute can conclude whether the implementation of using plastic fuel will be feasible and socially acceptable. The outcome will be evaluated concerning the feasibility, performance limitations and social acceptance. The results showed the degree of importance for consumers of price, emissions and infrastructure, from most influential to least, regarding making a fuel choice researched with an unlabelled SCE (Stated Choice Experiment). However, when transmitting from gasoline to plastic, the labelled SCE showed the degree of importance for infrastructure, emissions and price from high influence to low influence. Since using plastic fuel is a transition of fuel, the main focus will lie on the results of the labelled SCE. Concerning missions, the most optimal solution to implement plastic fuel is by providing the fuel as a blend. From research, a blend existing of 75-80% fossil fuel and 20-25% plastic shows improvement in tailpipe emissions reducing CO2 emissions and smoke. For NOx emissions, discussion is still ongoing on whether more or less emissions are produced compared to fossil fuels. However, with the blend range of 75-80% fossil fuel and 20-25%, the least NOx are produced compared to other blend ratios. Since a blend is the most optimal implementation strategy, the ease of having access to plastic-based fuel will not differ from fossil fuels as it will be blended into the currently used fuels. Adding plastic oil to fossil fuels will therefore provide a solution to the excess of plastic waste worldwide with an additional advantage of producing less emissions during combustion compared to the currently used fossil fuels.

Political and societal attention on transport inequality, transport vulnerabilities and transport poverty risk has been increasing the last five years. The Dutch government has committed multiple large sums of resources to abate the issue, 120 million euros to cancel the increase in price of train tickets, 300 million to cancel the increase in price and preserve the provision of the regional public transit and 6 million to start a pilot of ‘innovative public transport’ in the Zeeland region. A review of the literature on transport poverty risk reveals that past studies analyze the concept using a limited number of pre-selected variables. For example, car ownership and residence area. This carries the risk for misinterpretation as an accurate representation can only be achieved by considering all relevant variables. Such a comprehensive analysis could allow policymakers to formulate tailor-made policies according to the specific problems and needs of certain groups in society. This study aims to include the entire complexity of the concept of transport poverty risk in the analysis. Relevant factors include affordability, accessibility and mobility. Then there are individual differences, and for every individual changing over time, between needs of participating in society and social life. This study aims to incorporate this comprehensive definition in a Latent Class Analysis approach to construct groups of individuals based on the MPN and ODiN national datasets. The different groups of individuals can be then used to indicate the effect of policies on transport inequality. Results show three groups that are most transport ‘fortunate’, with high income, high car ownership, high accessibility and the potential to use different travel modes. Results also show one group with substantial transport vulnerabilities due to higher car dependency, lower car ownership and lower household income. A policy thought experiment is established through the application of mobility policy packages of three political parties. Car policies that reduce costs per driven kilometer such as reduction in excise tax will increase transport inequality due to the three groups that are the most transport ‘fortunate’, which also have the highest car use. This study provides the scientific community with a comprehensive definition and conceptual model of transport poverty risk and for policymakers contributes a comprehensive understanding of transport inequality in the Netherlands. Future research needs to focus on identifying specific minority groups that are not or less captured in the national datasets. Transport problems are experiences by an individual, while transport inequality is represented by the differences in the extent of transport problems between certain individuals or groups. In this case, certain groups in the Netherlands. This calls for the need to differentiate the government levels at which transport inequality and transport problems are addressed. While this study presents the transport inequality at the national level, municipalities will be able to identify specific individuals and neighborhoods who are more prone to transport problems.

With the ever so rapid transition towards renewable energy, the offshore electricity transmission system has to expand. Towards 2050, a meshed offshore network is seen as a cost-effective solution to bring electricity to shore. Although there is no "one size fits all", a Cross-Border Cost Allocation procedure is the designated procedure to allocate costs across Member States. To gain insights into key criteria for the cost allocation of a meshed offshore network, Q methodology was used to explore perspectives. The four resulting perspectives showed that for the realisation of a 300 GW meshed offshore network, contributions from non-hosting Member States is essential. However, the current procedure to allocate costs will not be suitable, as there are many points of disagreement to be resolved first. In this regard, the research provides a first understanding of the problems at hand in allocating costs across borders for projects the size of a meshed offshore network.

Fast developing technology offers many opportunities for innovation and optimization in the public domain. However this sector is bound to European directives on public procurement transposed into national law and therefore bound to the mandatory procurement of, among others, their assets. This legislation provides a limiting framework in which, after awarding the contract, little room for design adjustments is perceived to be left. As a result assets, especially with long-term procurement processes, are not in accordance with current technological development. The limited amount of literature on this subject provides mitigation in very specific cases, but no overview of flexibilities in the procurement process exists, which is therefore the objective of this research. The Dutch railway sector was used as context of this research and since most process design choices are made by the procurer, the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS) [Dutch Railways].
First, the current process was mapped out using the functional modelling technique IDEF0 based on which a first identification of flexibilities was performed. Subsequently, a first version of a morphological chart (MC) was made. This is a product design tool, in this research used, tested and validated for institutional design, as a parallel research focus supporting the exploration of flexibilities. The MC was developed and validated on its content as well as its use as institutional design tool. Additionally, validated trends were identified in the combination of flexibility aspects, followed by the exploration of a future institutional design for the NS.
During this research four additional construction rules for the MC were found, being (1) within scope of action, (2) readability, (3) abstraction level and (4) informational value, for which a variety of practical solutions are suggested. These were adhered to in the developed MC and resulted in the validation of this tool to be useful as systematic, substantiated and concrete guidance in the discussion of process design.
Using these developed conditions for the MC enabled identification and representation of aspects enhancing flexibility, being split into three chapters being Product, Contract and Market Approach. Validated conceptual designs enhancing flexibility were created by combining different fragments of solutions into one conceptual design. Six of these were created, one being the “traditional” procurement, four were based on collaborative practices and the last was based on the product to be part of a network. These four conceptual designs based on collaboration focused on: a partnership for the separate development of innovation, international collaboration and supplier-procurer collaboration of a light and more extensive degree.
Applying this to the case of the NS shows that separate innovation and extensive collaboration are perceived to be most suitable as starting point of their future procurement design.
Altogether it can be concluded that commencing a shift from a vertical to a horizontal approach within the buyer-supplier interaction is essential, placing greater importance on formalizing the partnership rather than specifying precise outcomes. The required redesign for enhanced flexibility to intermediate design changes in public procurement processes can be obtained by using the developed MC as guidance for discussion on the process design...

Research Objective & Methodology
The COVID-19 supply disruptions and the energy crisis triggered by the Russian-Ukrainian conflict emphasize the EU's structural supply dependencies and potential damages during crises. It underscores the critical risk factors, particularly Rare Earth Elements (REEs), which are highly susceptible to supply disturbances due to their increasing demand, limited supply, and reliance on a few suppliers, notably China. REEs are contrary to their name quite abundant, however, their extraction and processing are environmentally intensive, complex, and expensive. These REEs are utilized in numerous applications, including applications used in the energy transition because they exist in the Neodymium-Iron-Boron permanent magnets (Nd-Fe-B PMs). These magnets are used in wind turbine generators and traction motors of EVs. In these technologies, magnets are necessary to convert electricity into kinetic energy in EVs and vice versa for wind turbines.

This thesis focused on understanding how the EU can bolster its autonomy regarding its access to REEs, counterbalance supply risks, examine existing strategies, evaluate their effectiveness, and identify additional institutional interventions to strengthen the EU's position. This led to the following main research question:

How can the European Union improve its autonomy regarding its access to rare earth elements to achieve material security in the context of the European Union's energy transition?

The qualitative approach was chosen as the most suitable design approach to answering this main research question. It enabled a nuanced understanding of the EU's REE dependency issue by considering multiple dimensions and facilitated the development of well-informed and contextually grounded institutional interventions. The findings are triangulated between a literature review, desk research, and semi-structured depth-interviews with seven experts in this field.

This study performed REE value chains, actors, institutions, and PESTEL factor analyses. These four analyses offered a multifaceted insight into the complexities and interactions within this domain. Moreover, the illumination of various perspectives enhanced the overall comprehensiveness and facilitated a more holistic view of the EU's quest for enhanced REE autonomy.

Findings
Regarding the global REE value chain, China's unparalleled dominance, facilitated by generous lines of credits and subsidies, strategic partnerships and initiatives, geopolitical influence, manufacturing capabilities, technology, infrastructure, low labor cost, and lax environmental regulations, presents significant challenges. China's extensive control, especially in REE processing and Nd-Fe-B PM manufacturing, underscores the complex global dependence on China’s REE industry. The critical issues identified include a single third country supply dependency, rising demand for Nd-Fe-B PMs, challenges in recycling and circularity, high cost, stringent environmental regulations, and the need for skilled labor. These concerns, especially during the processing stage, underscore the complex barriers to achieving a resilient REE supply chain.

Globally, the REE landscape is predominantly shaped by China and the US. China maintains its pre-eminence through strategic initiatives, while the US is actively trying to close the gap. Acknowledging the imperative of strategic autonomy, the EU has instituted ambitious regulations, exemplified by the Critical Raw Materials Act (CRMA) and the Net-Zero Industry Act. These regulations established industry benchmarks for domestic extraction, processing, and recycling. However, the effectiveness of the CRMA in ensuring robust REE supply security is questionable.
 
The legislation lacks clarity on achieving and implementing industry benchmarks, presenting significant challenges in compliance, environmental and societal impacts, navigating shortened lead times for permitting, and addressing hurdles in private investment and fiscal alignment.

Institutional Interventions
This research identified enabling and constraining factors for the EU's autonomy regarding REE. Whereafter institutional interventions were created to cope with these issues. To achieve enhanced autonomy regarding REE access, five main strategies and several interventions are suggested. Conclusively, it is vital to note that the approach here is not a binary choice between strategies; rather, it necessitates the integration of a synergistic blend of the five proposed strategies.

Firstly, ‘Supply Diversification’ addresses the introduction of incentives for private demand for diversification, and the enhancement of strategic partnerships with REE-rich, EU-friendly countries.

Secondly, ‘Domestic Supply’ discusses: regulations incentivizing internal capacity; levelling the playing field; including Nd-Fe-B PM domestic manufacturing benchmarks; raising public acceptance; expanding funding; standardizing long-term contracts; and introducing low-energy zones.

Thirdly, ‘Circularity’ Encourages Nd-Fe-B PM demand reduction; incentivizes EoL practices; establishes CRMA PM labeling requirements; sets Nd-Fe-B PM collection targets; provides incentive structures; standardizes circularity by design; introduces extended producer responsibility; expands support programs; and impose an export ban on EoL Nd-Fe-B PMs.

Fourthly, ‘Substitutes for Nd-Fe-B PMs’ proposes: an increase in funding for R&D and innovation; and incentivizes substitutes for EV and wind turbine applications.

Fifthly, ‘Strategic Stockpiling’: addresses deficiencies in communication, transparency, and clarity by investigating obligation possibilities for Member States to monitor and strategically stock Nd-Fe-B PMs

Furthermore, the European Commission is instructed to consider introducing sub-benchmarks per individual CRM, improving understanding within governmental entities, increasing overall investment, and acknowledging the criticality for the EU to extend its policy horizon beyond 2030, given the long-term impacts of most proposed options. Moreover, EU policy alignment between Member States is critical, especially for creating an EU-level playing field for internal capacity and circularity. Enhancing autonomy in the realm of Rare Earth Elements (REEs) poses significant challenges, yet this thesis equips policymakers with essential findings and tools to navigate and improve access to REEs.