The performance of multiphase flow processes is often determined by the distribution of phases inside the equipment. However, controllers in the field are typically implemented based on flow variables, which are simpler to measure, but indirectly connected to performance (e.g., pressure). Tomography has been used in the study of the distribution of phases of multiphase flows for decades, but only recently, the temporal resolution of the technique was sufficient for real-time reconstructions of the flow. Due to the strong connection between the performance and distribution of phases, it is expected that the introduction of tomography to the real-time control of multiphase flows will lead to substantial improvements in the system performance in relation to the current controllers in the field. This paper uses a gas–liquid inline swirl separator to analyze the possibilities and limitations of tomography-based real-time control of multiphase flow processes. Experiments were performed in the separator using a wire-mesh sensor (WMS) and a high-speed camera to show that multiphase flows have two components in their dynamics: one intrinsic to its nonlinear physics, occurring independent of external process disturbances, and one due to process disturbances (e.g., changes in the flow rates of the installation). Moreover, it is shown that the intrinsic dynamics propagate from upstream to inside the separator and can be used in predictive and feedforward control strategies. In addition to the WMS experiments, a proportional–integral feedback controller based on electrical resistance tomography (ERT) was implemented in the separator, with successful results in relation to the control of the distribution of phases and impact on the performance of the process: the capture of gas was increased from 76% to 93% of the total gas with the tomography-based controller. The results obtained with the inline swirl separator are extended in the perspective of the tomography-based control of quasi-1D multiphase flows.@en

Opaqueness and visual accessibility in turbulent bubbly flows are the main cause of difficulty for conventional experimental techniques to extract properties from the bulk flow. Ultrafast X-ray tomography presents an unique possibility to visualise dense bubbly flows and to provide the ability to characterise the bubbles. With this technique, temporally resolved measurements can be obtained from a scanning plane. The post-processed images are stacked in time, resulting in a three-dimensional matrix with two spatial and one temporal resolutions. The gas flow structures are given straightforward by the image stack, which provides unique insights of the bubbly flow dynamics. Sizing the bubbles requires the velocity to be known, which can be achieved by means of measurement or assumption. Typically, a second measurement plane is needed for the velocity estimation. However, the employment of dual plane measurement data is limited to dilute bubbly flows. To characterise bubbles in the dense regime, a method is presented using only single plane data for size extraction without the need of velocity data. The procedure comprises determinating the Sauter diameter (d32), which depicts the ratio between volume and surface area of the bubble. Contrary to the use of dual plane measurements, here, the bubble diameter is firstly determined and from the bubble size with the assumption of the bubble's shape, the absolute bubble velocity can be roughly estimated. This method is verified with synthetic data of simple ideal-shaped bubbles. Subsequently, real bubbly flow measurements in bubble columns (with and without internals) are applied for the assessment of the resulting bubble sizes and velocity trend.@en

Ultrafast X-ray tomography is a recently developed imaging technique for multiphase flows. As with conventional X-ray tomography it involves reconstruction of images from X-ray projection data. If used for multiphase flow measurements, it moreover needs to be complemented with automated image processing algorithms for the extraction of flow features, such as gas holdup profiles, bubble/particle size distributions or disperse phase velocities. So far, image reconstruction is carried out with the standard filtered back-projection technique, which is fast but may not be optimal in the presence of noisy or corrupted data. As the latter is a frequent issue, search for optimal image reconstruction and data processing algorithms is continuously ongoing. This paper serves as a foundation of the image reconstruction and processing framework for the application to multiphase flow. A description is given of the procedure from reconstruction to thresholding to property extraction of ultrafast X-ray tomographic images. Two reconstruction techniques, FBP and SART are employed on the basis of phantom measurements. Each technique is evaluated separately, for FBP regarding the choice of filter and for SART regarding the termination criteria. Image reconstruction resolution, computational costs and sensitivity to the threshold value are investigated. Based on the analysis, FBP with the Ram-Lak filter is selected for image processing purposes. Furthermore, it is shown that from experiments with moving objects, there is fair agreement between measurements and the phantom dimensions. The described imaging process can be applied to different attenuation materials, simulating gas-solid and gas-liquid properties.@en

The bubble characteristics in a 3-D cylindrical fluidized bed have been investigated both experimentally and numerically. Experiments were performed on a 0.1 m diameter fluidized bed, with alumina oxide particles (diameter ~1 mm) as a fluidizing material. Measurements were done at a spatial resolution of 1 mm and a temporal resolution of 1000 cross-sectional images per second, using an ultrafast electron beam X-ray computed tomography (XRT) setup (Fischer and Hampel 2010). A two-fluid model using kinetic theory of granular flow (Verma et al., 2013) was used to predict the bed dynamics numerically. The equivalent bubble diameter as a function of height is in close agreement with Darton et al. (1977) and Werther (1975) correlations. The bubble size distribution predicted from simulations is broader compared to experiments. Both the bubble rise velocity and the bubble size increase with increase in excess gas velocity. The experimental measurements and simulation predictions are in fair agreement with the Hilligardt and Werther (1986) correlation.@en

The bubble characteristics in a 3-D cylindrical fluidized bed have been investigated both experimentally and numerically. Experiments were performed on a 0.1 m diameter fluidized bed, with alumina oxide particles (diameter ~1 mm) as a fluidizing material. Measurements were done at a spatial resolution of 1 mm and a temporal resolution of 1000 cross-sectional images per second, using an ultrafast electron beam X-ray computed tomography (XRT) setup (Fischer and Hampel 2010). A two-fluid model using kinetic theory of granular flow (Verma et al., 2013) was used to predict the bed dynamics numerically. The equivalent bubble diameter as a function of height is in close agreement with Darton et al. (1977) and Werther (1975) correlations. The bubble size distribution predicted from simulations is broader compared to experiments. Both the bubble rise velocity and the bubble size increase with increase in excess gas velocity. The experimental measurements and simulation predictions are in fair agreement with the Hilligardt and Werther (1986) correlation.@en

In continuous casting, the flow structure of the liquid steel in the mould and the two-phase distribution in the submerged entry nozzle (SEN) are crucial for the quality of the produced steel. In order to effectively control the flow in the mould by electromagnetic brakes (EMBrs) and the injection of gas into the SEN, even a rough knowledge of the flow structure would be very helpful. In the framework of the TOMOCON project, the contactless inductive flow tomography (CIFT) and the mutual inductance tomography (MIT) will be integrated into a control loop for slab casters. This control loop will be developed and implemented at the Mini-LIMMCAST facility, which is available at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden - Rossendorf. In this paper a short overview of this project will be given.@en

This text structures the application of Wire-Mesh sensors and Electrical Resistance Tomography in the control of an Inline Swirl Separator. It introduces a mechanistic model of the two-phase flow inside the device, which is linearized around an ideal perfect operation, and implemented in a Model Predictive Controller. The whole text is structured aiming at a future real application of the controller, briefly introducing the setup that is going to be used, the sensors and their working principles. The results obtained show a stable controller, able to regulate the process relatively fast in relation to the time resolution of the sensors. The positive response of the approach stimulates further improvements in the model developed, and the implementation of more sophisticated techniques to handle the non-linearities of the process.@en

Bubble characteristics in a three-dimension gas-fluidized bed (FB) have been measured using noninvasive ultrafast electron beam X-ray tomography. The measurements are compared with predictions by a two-fluid model (TFM) based on kinetic theory of granular flow. The effect of bed material (glass, alumina, and low linear density polyethylene (LLDPE), dp ~1 mm), inlet gas velocity, and initial particle bed height on the bubble behavior is investigated in a cylindrical column of 0.1-m diameter. The bubble rise velocity is determined by cross correlation of images from dual horizontal planes. The bubble characteristics depend highly upon the particle collisional properties. The bubble sizes obtained from experiments and simulations show good agreement. The LLDPE particles show high gas hold-up and higher bubble rise velocity than predicted on basis of literature correlations. The bed expansion is relatively high for LLDPE particles. The X-ray tomography and TFM results provide in-depth understanding of bubble behavior in FBs containing different granular material types.@en

The influence of dense vertical tube bundles in a batch bubble column reactor (BCR) of 100 mm diameter and 1100 mm clear liquid height on liquid dispersion and gas-liquid mass transfer was studied. In particular, the effects of different tube patterns (triangular and square pitch), tube diameters (8 and 13 mm) and bottom end designs (flat and U-tube) having a tube diameter-to-pitch ratio of approx. 1.3 were investigated. Dispersion coefficients were determined based on conductive tracer experiments recorded via wire-mesh sensors (WMS) with up to 90 measurement points distributed in the column's cross-section in between the tubes. The gas-liquid mass transfer coefficient was determined via fast-responding oxygen needle probes. Tube pitch and pattern were identified as the most crucial design parameters for the extent of liquid dispersion. We found that particularly the U-tube bottom end design induces large liquid circulation patterns, which enhance dispersion. The presence of internals decreases the kla value as a consequence of turbulence damping, which is also confirmed by lower kl values (e.g. 0.6 × 10−3 m s−1 for the empty BCR and 0.25 × 10−3 m s−1 for the square pitch with 8 mm tubes at 0.05 m s−1 superficial gas velocity), whereas the pitch is the most decisive design parameter. The U-tube bottom end design was identified as the most beneficial configuration with respect to liquid mixing and gas-liquid mass transfer.@en

The influence of dense vertical tube bundles in a batch bubble column reactor (BCR) of 100 mm diameter and 1100 mm clear liquid height on liquid dispersion and gas-liquid mass transfer was studied. In particular, the effects of different tube patterns (triangular and square pitch), tube diameters (8 and 13 mm) and bottom end designs (flat and U-tube) having a tube diameter-to-pitch ratio of approx. 1.3 were investigated. Dispersion coefficients were determined based on conductive tracer experiments recorded via wire-mesh sensors (WMS) with up to 90 measurement points distributed in the column's cross-section in between the tubes. The gas-liquid mass transfer coefficient was determined via fast-responding oxygen needle probes. Tube pitch and pattern were identified as the most crucial design parameters for the extent of liquid dispersion. We found that particularly the U-tube bottom end design induces large liquid circulation patterns, which enhance dispersion. The presence of internals decreases the kla value as a consequence of turbulence damping, which is also confirmed by lower kl values (e.g. 0.6 × 10−3 m s−1 for the empty BCR and 0.25 × 10−3 m s−1 for the square pitch with 8 mm tubes at 0.05 m s−1 superficial gas velocity), whereas the pitch is the most decisive design parameter. The U-tube bottom end design was identified as the most beneficial configuration with respect to liquid mixing and gas-liquid mass transfer.@en