External sulfate attack is a progressive degradation process that may cause expansion, cracking, loss of binder cohesion and increased permeability in cementitious materials. Crystallization pressure theory has often been referred to as the most likely mechanism. However, thus far the stress causing the expansion has not been quantified. In this study, small cement paste pipes with a wall thickness of 2.5 mm were prepared and immersed in sodium sulfate solutions with SO₄²⁻ ion concentrations of 1.5 g/L and 30 g/L. Three types of longitudinal restraints were applied on the specimens before exposure, which were created by a spring, a thin or a thicker stainless steel bar that was centered in the hollow specimens in order to facilitate the non-, low- or high-restraint condition. The free expansion, restrained expansion and generated stress were quantified. The pore size distribution, sulfur distribution and crack pattern were periodically analyzed during the sulfate immersion tests up to 420 days. The generated stresses were found to be as high as 13.1 MPa in high sulfate solution and 8.3 MPa in low sulfate solution under high-restraint condition after 420-day immersion. For the unrestrained specimens immersed in low sulfate solution, an almost uniform sulfur distribution along the diffusion direction was found at 189-day immersion. However, for the unrestrained specimens immersed in high sulfate solution, a layer or several layers of mainly gypsum were formed subparallel to the exposed surface from 133-day immersion. ... Read more

External sulfate attack is one of the situations that may cause gradual but severe damage in cementitious materials, which may lead to cracking, increased permeability and strength loss. In this paper, thin-walled hollow cement paste cylinders with a wall thickness of 2.5mm were made considering the slow penetration process of sulfate ions under continuous immersion condition. Three types of longitudinal restraints were applied on the hollow cement paste cylinders by means of a spring and steel bars through the specimens in order to facilitate non-, low- and high-restraint conditions. Strain gauges were glued on the steel bars so as to increase the accuracy of the measurements. During the immersion tests, specimen expansion and generated stress were monitored. Additionally, sulfur element mapping was generated by EDS (energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry). Expansion behaviours of the hollow cement paste cylinders were simulated under the aforementioned restraint conditions which were carried out based on the Delft lattice fracture model. The expansion was assumed to be realized upon formation of ettringite inside the nanopores of the cement hydration products. Local expansion stresses were computed by employing the crystallization pressure theory. A comparison between the simulation and the experimental results showed reasonable correlation and tendency for further exploration of our approach. ... Read more