Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) at sub-millimeter waves has the potential to image the shadow of the black hole in the Galactic Center, Sagittarius A∗ (Sgr A∗), and thereby test basic predictions of the theory of general relativity. We investigate the imaging prospects of a new Space VLBI mission concept. The setup consists of two satellites in polar or equatorial circular Medium-Earth Orbits with slightly different radii, resulting in a dense spiral-shaped uv-coverage with long baselines, allowing for extremely high-resolution and high-fidelity imaging of radio sources. We simulate observations of a general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics model of Sgr A∗ for this configuration with noise calculated from model system parameters. After gridding the uv-plane and averaging visibilities accumulated over multiple months of integration, images of Sgr A∗ with a resolution of up to 4 μ as could be reconstructed, allowing for stronger tests of general relativity and accretion models than with ground-based VLBI.@en

The past decade has seen the advent of various radio astronomy arrays, particularly for low-frequency observations below 100 MHz. These developments have been primarily driven by interesting and fundamental scientific questions, such as studying the dark ages and epoch of re-ionization, by detecting the highly red-shifted 21 cm line emission. However, Earth-based radio astronomy observations at frequencies below 30 MHz are severely restricted due to man-made interference, ionospheric distortion and almost complete non-transparency of the ionosphere below 10 MHz. Therefore, this narrow spectral band remains possibly the last unexplored frequency range in radio astronomy. A straightforward solution to study the universe at these frequencies is to deploy a space-based antenna array far away from Earths’ ionosphere. In the past, such space-based radio astronomy studies were principally limited by technology and computing resources, however current processing and communication trends indicate otherwise. Furthermore, successful space-based missions which mapped the sky in this frequency regime, such as the lunar orbiter RAE-2, were restricted by very poor spatial resolution. Recently concluded studies, such as DARIS (Disturbuted Aperture Array for Radio Astronomy In Space) have shown the ready feasibility of a 9 satellite constellation using off the shelf components. The aim of this article is to discuss the current trends and technologies towards the feasibility of a space-based aperture array for astronomical observations in the Ultra-Long Wavelength (ULW) regime of greater than 10 m i.e., below 30 MHz. We briefly present the achievable science cases, and discuss the system design for selected scenarios such as extra-galactic surveys. An extensive discussion is presented on various sub-systems of the potential satellite array, such as radio astronomical antenna design, the on-board signal processing, communication architectures and joint space-time estimation of the satellite network. In light of a scalable array and to avert single point of failure, we propose both centralized and distributed solutions for the ULW space-based array. We highlight the benefits of various deployment locations and summarize the technological challenges for future space-based radio arrays.@en

Context. It has been proposed that Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) at submillimeter waves will allow us to image the shadow of the black hole in the center of our Milky Way, Sagittarius A∗(Sgr A∗), and thereby test basic predictions of the theory of general relativity. Aims. This paper presents imaging simulations of a new Space VLBI (SVLBI) mission concept. An initial design study of the concept has been presented in the form of the Event Horizon Imager (EHI). The EHI may be suitable for imaging Sgr A∗at high frequencies (up to ∼690 GHz), which has significant advantages over performing ground-based VLBI at 230 GHz. The concept EHI design consists of two or three satellites in polar or equatorial circular medium-Earth orbits (MEOs) with slightly different radii. Due to the relative drift of the satellites along the individual orbits over the course of several weeks, this setup will result in a dense spiral-shaped uv-coverage with long baselines (up to ∼60Gλ), allowing for extremely high-resolution and high-fidelity imaging of radio sources. Methods. We simulated observations of general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics (GRMHD) models of Sgr A∗for the proposed configuration and calculate the expected noise based on preliminary system parameters. On long baselines, where the signal-tonoise ratio may be low, fringes could be detected assuming that the system is sufficiently phase stable and the satellite orbits can be reconstructed with sufficient accuracy. Averaging visibilities accumulated over multiple epochs of observations could then help improving the image quality. With three satellites instead of two, closure phases could be used for imaging. Results. Our simulations show that the EHI could be capable of imaging the black hole shadow of Sgr A∗with a resolution of 4 μas (about 8% of the shadow diameter) within several months of observing time. Conclusion. Our preliminary study of the EHI concept shows that it is potentially of high scientific value. It could be used to measure black hole shadows much more precisely than with ground-based VLBI, allowing for stronger tests of general relativity and accretion models.@en

Context. It has been proposed that Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) at submillimeter waves will allow us to image the shadow of the black hole in the center of our Milky Way, Sagittarius A∗(Sgr A∗), and thereby test basic predictions of the theory of general relativity. Aims. This paper presents imaging simulations of a new Space VLBI (SVLBI) mission concept. An initial design study of the concept has been presented in the form of the Event Horizon Imager (EHI). The EHI may be suitable for imaging Sgr A∗at high frequencies (up to ∼690 GHz), which has significant advantages over performing ground-based VLBI at 230 GHz. The concept EHI design consists of two or three satellites in polar or equatorial circular medium-Earth orbits (MEOs) with slightly different radii. Due to the relative drift of the satellites along the individual orbits over the course of several weeks, this setup will result in a dense spiral-shaped uv-coverage with long baselines (up to ∼60Gλ), allowing for extremely high-resolution and high-fidelity imaging of radio sources. Methods. We simulated observations of general relativistic magnetohydrodynamics (GRMHD) models of Sgr A∗for the proposed configuration and calculate the expected noise based on preliminary system parameters. On long baselines, where the signal-tonoise ratio may be low, fringes could be detected assuming that the system is sufficiently phase stable and the satellite orbits can be reconstructed with sufficient accuracy. Averaging visibilities accumulated over multiple epochs of observations could then help improving the image quality. With three satellites instead of two, closure phases could be used for imaging. Results. Our simulations show that the EHI could be capable of imaging the black hole shadow of Sgr A∗with a resolution of 4 μas (about 8% of the shadow diameter) within several months of observing time. Conclusion. Our preliminary study of the EHI concept shows that it is potentially of high scientific value. It could be used to measure black hole shadows much more precisely than with ground-based VLBI, allowing for stronger tests of general relativity and accretion models.@en

The radio sky at frequencies below ∼30 MHz is virtually unobservable from Earth due to ionospheric disturbances and the opaqueness of the ionosphere below ∼10MHz, and also due to strong terrestrial radio interference. Deploying a radio observatory in space would open up this largely unexplored frequency band for science in astronomy, cosmology, geophysics, and space science. A Chinese-European team is proposing an ultra long wavelength (ULW) radio interferometer mission DSL (Discovering the Sky at the Longest Wavelengths). The proposed radio interferometer will be deployed in low-altitude lunar orbit, exploiting the radio quietness of the lunar far side. DSL will consist of a mother-spacecraft for data transport and control, plus eight small micro-satellites each equipped with three orthogonal dipoles. These satellites form a virtual distributed observatory with adjustable baselines, allowing different scientific observation strategies. The satellites are configured in a flexible quasi-linear array in nearly identical orbits, guaranteeing low relative drift rates. Short orbital periods and orbit precession ensure quick filling of the interferometric spatial frequency (u, v, w) space, enabling high quality imaging. The science themes considered for the DSL mission include pioneering studies of the unknown and exploratory science such as the search for signatures of the cosmological Dark Ages, complementing current (e.g. LOFAR) and future SKA telescope searches; full-sky continuum survey of discrete sources, including ultra-steep spectrum extragalactic sources, pulsars, and transients (galactic and extragalactic); full-sky map of continuum diffuse emission; solar-terrestrial physics, planetary sciences, and cosmic ray physics. The main frequency band covered is 1-30 MHz extending down to 0.1 MHz, and up to about 50 MHz for cross-referencing with ground-based instruments. DSL will support a variety of observational modes, including broad-band spectral analysis for Dark Ages, radio interferometric cross-correlations for imaging, and flexible raw data downlink capability. Data processing will be performed at radio astronomy science data centres in Europe and China.@en