Groundwater depletion is a problem in many parts the world. We developed an approach to investigate the drivers of groundwater depletion in data-scarce regions. The approach combines natural and human-induced drivers, with the latter focusing on the link between human activities and government policies. We tested the approach in Wadi Zabid, Yemen. Forty years of rainfall-runoff data were analyzed, alongside changes in land cover, groundwater abstraction and related policies. No decrease in rainfall was observed, but runoff did decrease slightly. Significant expansion of agricultural lands led to increased demand for irrigation water, which was provided by drilling wells and building water harvesting/diversion structures. In Wadi Zabid, human activities, stimulated by policy measures, were the main drivers of groundwater depletion (water table here fell by 1 m/yr on average over 1972–2016). We conclude that combining natural and human-induced factors is indeed a valuable approach for investigating groundwater depletion drivers.

Rural areas face major challenges in adapting to the impacts of climate change, in particular to floods and droughts. This calls for both adaptation of rural functions and climate-proof and water-resilient design of the rural area, often implying improvement of water retention and flood protection. Implementation of such climate change-related goals in spatial planning often involves adaptations in water management, perhaps even leading to land consolidation. Water management and land consolidation thus form important tools for spatial adaptation. Land consolidation is also a tool to support the integration of other claims that need room, such as agriculture, nature, landscape and tourism functions. This paper investigates the history of and approaches to land consolidation and water management in Poland and the Netherlands, and illustrates the integration of land consolidation and water management to realize a multifunctional climate resilient rural area by two examples in each country. We qualitatively compared the extent to which the planned activities in water retention and flood protection were realized and planned results were achieved for other functions. We found that the two adaptation measures, water retention and flood protection, were more effective in the Netherlands, stemming from ample attention for the impact of climate change and the incorporation of climate change adaptation goals in water policy. Furthermore, the water retention and flood protection measures in the Netherlands better serve multiple functions: agriculture, nature, recreation, landscape and infrastructure. Reasons for this are the multidisciplinary and participatory approach, attention to public awareness and communication and promotion of the process. On the other hand, the Dutch have much to learn from Poland's vast, undisturbed natural areas, which contribute to a climate resilient landscape. Both Poland and the Netherlands could therefore benefit from bringing together ideas and experiences regarding climate proofing the rural area.