The improvement of feed spacers with optimal geometry remains a key challenge for spiral-wound membrane systems in water treatment due to their impact on the hydrodynamic performance and fouling development. In this work, novel spacer designs are proposed by intrinsically modifying cylindrical filaments through perforations. Three symmetric perforated spacers (1-Hole, 2-Hole, and 3-Hole) were in-house 3D-printed and experimentally evaluated in terms of permeate flux, feed channel pressure drop and membrane fouling. Spacer performance is characterized and compared with standard no perforated (0-Hole) design under constant feed pressure and constant feed flow rate. Perforations in the spacer filaments resulted in significantly lowering the net pressure drop across the spacer filled channel. The 3-Hole spacer was found to have the lowest pressure drop (50%–61%) compared to 0-Hole spacer for various average flow velocities. Regarding permeate flux production, the 0-Hole spacer produced 5.7 L m−2.h−1 and 6.6 L m−2.h−1 steady state flux for constant pressure and constant feed flow rate, respectively. The 1-Hole spacer was found to be the most efficient among the perforated spacers with 75% and 23% increase in permeate production at constant pressure and constant feed flow, respectively. Furthermore, membrane surface of 1-Hole spacer was found to be cleanest in terms of fouling, contributing to maintain higher permeate flux production. Hydrodynamic understanding of these perforated spacers is also quantified by performing Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). The performance enhancement of these perforated spacers is attributed to the formation of micro-jets in the spacer cell that aided in producing enough unsteadiness/turbulence to clean the membrane surface and mitigate fouling phenomena. In the case of 1-Hole spacer, the unsteadiness intensity at the outlet of micro-jets and the shear stress fluctuations created inside the cells are higher than those observed with other perforated spacers, resulting in the cleanest membrane surface.@en

A vital component of spiral-wound membrane modules is the spacer mesh. It not only structurally supports the membranes but also aids in mass-transport enhancement through the membrane surface. Fundamental understanding of hydrodynamics associated with these spacer designs is critical to improve the permeate flux performance by decreasing concentration polarization and minimizing (bio)fouling, as well as minimizing the axial pressure drop. In the present study, time and space resolved Direct Numerical Simulations (DNS) were performed for a commercial spacer geometry. The spacer geometry was reconstructed by measurements using Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Computations were performed for three spacer cells, allowing elimination of stream-wise periodicity that was a major bottleneck in earlier studies. The numerical solver was well checked in terms of boundary layer profiles obtained from Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) data and with pressure measurements corresponding to various flow channel velocities. Non-dimensional computations were performed for Reynolds Numbers (Re) ranging from 73 to 375 (inlet channel velocity of 0.073–0.375 m/s) covering the flow transition dynamics regime. Results indicate that flow transition from steady to unsteady regime occurs for Re > 250. The flow transition could be primarily attributed to the interaction between vortices attached to the spacer filaments and the screw-vortex that originates along the diagonal of the spacer cells. No turbulent transition was observed even at the highest investigated velocity (Re = 375). The frequency spectra of time-varying velocity signal shows that at Re > 350 a sudden shift of frequency spectra occurs from discrete to continuous mode indicating the onset of advanced instability. Spacer design criteria in terms of maximum principal stress is also proposed, which can potentially aid in minimizing biofilm seeding.@en