Demand for rare earth permanent magnets (REPMs) has grown drastically the past decades and is expected to increase further due to their use in electronics, electric vehicles and wind turbines. Rare earth supply challenges have increased the urgency to recycle End-of-Life (EoL) REPMs. This paper examined the development of global EoL REPM recycling by applying the Technological Innovation Systems (TIS) framework, assessing temporal development and dynamics between different aspects of the system. The analysis showed an acceleration of recycling innovation activities since 2013, evidenced by e.g. research and development initiatives, (commercial) pilot plants and media and policy attention. Activities were identified globally, with regional concentration of some functions. Innovation in EoL REPM recycling is mainly driven by policies and positive expectations, while entrepreneurial activities also contribute. The EoL REPM recycling TIS holds potential for further growth, if sufficient supplies of recyclable material are secured and a demand for recycled magnets is created. These goals can be achieved by developing the capacity to handle a diversity of waste products, by making recycling cost-effective, or by finding other marketing approaches for recycled magnets. This would enable the emergence of an independent market. Together with other circular economy solutions, EoL REPM recycling can contribute to a more sustainable and resilient magnet supply.

Widespread adoption of electric vehicles poses challenges due to critical raw material (CRM) requirements. The European Union (EU) is now dependent on other countries for supply of these materials, but wants to increase self-sufficiency for primary extraction to 10 % in 2030. Here we map and quantify Europe's raw material reserves and resources, revealing promising deposits for most minerals. Our analysis indicates that, assuming a high development scenario, for lithium, nickel and copper the planned extraction in Europe is sufficient to meet at least 10 % ofdemand for E-mobility in 2030, as the EU's proposed target dictates. The projected extraction of cobalt, natural graphite and REE, will probably not reach 10 % of the demand in 2030. For REE there is no European production projected. To meet these targets and increase the EU's self-sufficiency, CRM extraction in Europe needs to increase, in parallel with implementing circular economy efforts to reduce material demand.