We present a small-scale mission concept to characterize the permanently shadowed regions of the lunar south pole. MARAUDERS aims to measure in situ for the first time the presence, distribution, and state of volatiles in one permanently shaded crater at a greater resolution than existing orbital measurements using up to 12 deployed impactors. A total of 15 permanently shadowed regions have been characterized as potential landing sites candidates for the probes. The science principle is based on penetrometry, that has proven in the past to be an efficient technique to estimate regolith properties from acceleration profiles. We demonstrate this concept by numerically simulating the surface interaction between our probes and the lunar regolith, thereby demonstrating how deceleration profiles can elucidate information on key regolith properties and help discriminate between two ice-regolith end-members. The preliminary payload design indicates that a good baseline for the impactors would be a spherical shell of 30–40 ​mm in size and ~90 ​g in mass per impactor, including electronics and the communication system. This would sum up to an overall payload of ~1 ​kg contained in a volume of ~15.10−4 ​m3, which is in agreement with a small-scale payload. Preliminary landing trajectory design enabled the computing of a nominal deployment scenario (with constraint on altitude, ejection velocity and spin rate) that would provide dispersions of the probes from ~250 ​m down to ~20 ​m if deployed from orbit, and down to ~10 ​m if deployed from a carrier lander/rover. Both scenarios will be able to comply with the MARAUDERS’ objectives to assess: (1) the presence (2) the distribution and (3) the surface strength heterogeneity (that can be traced back to the state of volatiles through lab experiments) of water-ice volatiles in permanently shadowed regions at a resolution ​< ​10 ​s ​m via ground-truth measurements. Future work will be dedicated to experimental work to validate the modelling as a proof of concept for the MARAUDERS, as well as the development of the payload.@en

The OSIRIS-REx mission collected a sample from the surface of the asteroid (101955) Bennu in 2020 October. Here, we study the impact of the OSIRIS-REx Touch-and-Go Sampling Acquisition Mechanism (TAGSAM) interacting with the surface of an asteroid in the framework of granular physics. Traditional approaches to estimating the penetration depth of a projectile into a granular medium include force laws and scaling relationships formulated from laboratory experiments in terrestrial-gravity conditions. However, it is unclear that these formulations extend to the OSIRIS-REx scenario of a 1300-kg spacecraft interacting with regolith in a microgravity environment. We studied the TAGSAM interaction with Bennu through numerical simulations using two collisional codes, pkdgrav and gdc-i. We validated their accuracy by reproducing the results of laboratory impact experiments in terrestrial gravity. We then performed TAGSAM penetration simulations varying the following geotechnical properties of the regolith: packing fraction (P), bulk density, inter-particle cohesion (σc), and angle of friction (φ). We find that the outcome of a spacecraft-regolith impact has a non-linear dependence on packing fraction. Closely packed regolith (P ? 0.6) can effectively resist the penetration of TAGSAM if φ ? 28° and/or σc ? 50 Pa. For loosely packed regolith (P ? 0.5), the penetration depth is governed by a drag force that scales with impact velocity to the 4/3 power, consistent with energy conservation. We discuss the importance of low-speed impact studies for predicting and interpreting spacecraft-surface interactions. We show that these low-energy events also provide a framework for interpreting the burial depths of large boulders in asteroidal regolith.@en

The many small-body exploration missions that have occurred over the last few decades have shown that small solar system objects are covered with granular material of varying depth. These missions have also observed that granular materials are mobilized from the surfaces at speeds on the order of escape speed by different contributing mechanisms. Those result in various outcomes including escape and reimpact. The latter contributes to further impact-driven evolution. Despite the long history of the research in the field of planetary cratering, low-speed impacts have not been studied extensively under gravity levels relevant to small-bodies. Earth-based low-gravity platforms lack the ability to probe microgravity impact physics for a sufficiently long duration to collect meaningful data from experiments. In order to overcome these challenges, this study uses discrete-element method (DEM) simulations to test low-speed cratering at 5–50 cm/s in granular materials in microgravity. The study first presents a procedure for post-processing the raw simulation data to extract the information relevant to the crater-scaling relationships and demonstrates their applicability for crater sizes, ejecta properties and crater formation time. The implications of the results are discussed in the light of results from recent small-body exploration missions.@en