The mean wall shear stress, τ¯ _w, is a fundamental variable for characterizing turbulent boundary layers. Ideally, τ¯ _w is measured by a direct means and the use of floating elements has long been proposed. However, previous such devices have proven to be problematic due to low signal-to-noise ratios. In this paper, we present new direct measurements of τ¯ _w where high signal-to-noise ratios are achieved using a new design of a large-scale floating element with a surface area of 3 m (streamwise) × 1 m (spanwise). These dimensions ensure a strong measurement signal, while any error associated with an integral measurement of τ¯ _w is negligible in Melbourne’s large-scale turbulent boundary layer facility. Wall-drag induced by both smooth- and rough-wall zero-pressure-gradient flows are considered. Results for the smooth-wall friction coefficient, C_f≡ τ¯ _w/ q_∞, follow a Coles–Fernholz relation Cf=[1/κln(Reθ)+C]-2 to within 3 % (κ= 0.38 and C= 3.7) for a momentum thickness-based Reynolds number, Re_θ> 15 , 000. The agreement improves for higher Reynolds numbers to <1 % deviation for Re_θ> 38 , 000. This smooth-wall benchmark verification of the experimental apparatus is critical before attempting any rough-wall studies. For a rough-wall configuration with P36 grit sandpaper, measurements were performed for 10 , 500 < Re_θ< 88 , 500 , for which the wall-drag indicates the anticipated trend from the transitionally to the fully rough regime.

Wavelet analysis is employed to examine amplitude and frequency modulations in broadband signals. Of particular interest are the streamwise velocity fluctuations encountered in wall-bounded turbulent flows. Recent studies have shown that an important feature of the near-wall dynamics is the modulation of small scales by large-scale motions. Small- and large-scale components of the velocity time series are constructed by employing a spectral separation scale. Wavelet analysis of the small-scale component decomposes the energy in joint time–frequency space. The concept is to construct a low-dimensional representation of the small-scale time-varying spectrum via two new time series: the instantaneous amplitude of the small-scale energy and the instantaneous frequency. Having the latter in a time-continuous representation allows a more thorough analysis of frequency modulation. By correlating the large-scale velocity with the concurrent small-scale amplitude and frequency realizations, both amplitude and frequency modulations are studied. In addition, conditional averages of the small-scale amplitude and frequency realizations depict unique features of the scale interaction. For both modulation phenomena, the much studied time shifts, associated with peak correlations between the large-scale velocity and small-scale amplitude and frequency traces, are addressed. We confirm that the small-scale amplitude signal leads the large-scale fluctuation close to the wall. It is revealed that the time shift in frequency modulation is smaller than that in amplitude modulation. The current findings are described in the context of a conceptual mechanism of the near-wall modulation phenomena.