Clinical treatments for the repair of osteochondral defects (OCD) are merely palliative, not completely curative, and thus enormously unfulfilled challenges. With the in-depth studies of biology, medicine, materials, and engineering technology, the conception of OCD repair and regeneration should be renewed. During the past decades, many innovative tissue-engineered approaches for repairing and regenerating damaged osteochondral units have been widely explored. Various scaffold-free and scaffold-based strategies, such as monophasic, biphasic, and currently fabricated multiphasic and gradient architectures have been proposed and evaluated. Meanwhile, progenitor cells and tissue-specific cells have also been intensively investigated in vivo as well as ex vivo. Concerning bioactive factors and drugs, they have been combined with scaffolds and/or living cells, and even released in a spatiotemporally controlled manner. Although tremendous progress has been achieved, further research and development (R&D) is needed to convert preclinical outcomes into clinical applications. Here, the osteochondral unit structure, its defect classifications, and diagnosis are summarized. Commonly used clinical reparative techniques, tissue-engineered strategies, emerging 3D-bioprinting technologies, and the status of their clinical applications are discussed. Existing challenges to translation are also discussed and potential solutions for future R&D directions are proposed.@en

Articular cartilage (AC) is an avascular and flexible connective tissue located on the bone surface in the diarthrodial joints. AC defects are common in the knees of young and physically active individuals. Because of the lack of suitable tissue-engineered artificial matrices, current therapies for AC defects, especially full-thickness AC defects and osteochondral interfaces, fail to replace or regenerate damaged cartilage adequately. With rapid research and development advancements in AC tissue engineering (ACTE), functionalized hydrogels have emerged as promising cartilage matrix substitutes because of their favorable biomechanical properties, water content, swelling ability, cytocompatibility, biodegradability, and lubricating behaviors. They can be rationally designed and conveniently tuned to simulate the extracellular matrix of cartilage. This article briefly introduces the composition, structure, and function of AC and its defects, followed by a comprehensive review of the exquisite (bio)design and (bio)fabrication of functionalized hydrogels for AC repair. Finally, we summarize the challenges encountered in functionalized hydrogel-based strategies for ACTE both in vivo and in vitro and the future directions for clinical translation.@en

As a highly specialized shock-absorbing connective tissue, articular cartilage (AC) has very limited self-repair capacity after traumatic injuries, posing a heavy socioeconomic burden. Common clinical therapies for small- to medium-size focal AC defects are well-developed endogenous repair and cell-based strategies, including microfracture, mosaicplasty, autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI), and matrix-induced ACI (MACI). However, these treatments frequently result in mechanically inferior fibrocartilage, low cost-effectiveness, donor site morbidity, and short-term durability. It prompts an urgent need for innovative approaches to pattern a pro-regenerative microenvironment and yield hyaline-like cartilage with similar biomechanical and biochemical properties as healthy native AC. Acellular regenerative biomaterials can create a favorable local environment for AC repair without causing relevant regulatory and scientific concerns from cell-based treatments. A deeper understanding of the mechanism of endogenous cartilage healing is furthering the (bio)design and application of these scaffolds. Currently, the utilization of regenerative biomaterials to magnify the repairing effect of joint-resident endogenous stem/progenitor cells (ESPCs) presents an evolving improvement for cartilage repair. This review starts by briefly summarizing the current understanding of endogenous AC repair and the vital roles of ESPCs and chemoattractants for cartilage regeneration. Then several intrinsic hurdles for regenerative biomaterials-based AC repair are discussed. The recent advances in novel (bio)design and application regarding regenerative biomaterials with favorable biochemical cues to provide an instructive extracellular microenvironment and to guide the ESPCs (e.g. adhesion, migration, proliferation, differentiation, matrix production, and remodeling) for cartilage repair are summarized. Finally, this review outlines the future directions of engineering the next-generation regenerative biomaterials toward ultimate clinical translation.@en