The fatigue resistance of welded connections made of high strength steel (HSS) is one of the most important topics for the application of HSS in the construction sector. One of the most challenging issues is how to predict the fatigue life of welded structures with complex geometry based on the test results from relatively simple coupon specimens. However, there are generally pre-existing residual stresses in the welded coupon specimens during fatigue tests, and these residual stresses vary greatly in welded structures with complex geometry. This increases the difficulty in predicting the fatigue behaviour of welded structures based on results at coupon scale. Hence, it is important to establish a relationship between the residual stress independent material characteristics and fatigue life. The fatigue behaviour of complex welded structures can be predicted by this residual stress independent material characteristics calibrated at the coupon level and simulated local residual stress distribution. In this paper, the residual stress-free characteristics, hardness, is employed to predict the fatigue life of butt-welded joints. Besides, the residual stress of V-shaped butt welds on a plate made of high strength steels are analysed by modelling of the welding process based on subsequent thermal analysis and mechanical stress analysis by implementing kill/birth strategies. The results show that it contributes to a better prediction compared with experimental results after considering the residual stress effects.@en

Thunderstorm downbursts have been reported to cause damage or failure to wind turbine arrays. We extend a large-eddy simulation model used in previous work to generate downburst-related inflow fields with a view toward defining correlated wind fields that all turbines in an array would experience together during a downburst. We are also interested in establishing what role contrasting atmospheric stability conditions can play on the structural demands on the turbines. This interest is because the evening transition period, when thunderstorms are most common, is also when there is generally acknowledged time-varying stability in the atmospheric boundary layer. Our results reveal that the structure of a downburst’s ring vortices and dissipation of its outflow play important roles in the separate inflow fields for turbines located at different parts of the array; these effects vary with stability. Interacting with the ambient winds, the outflow of a downburst is found to have greater impacts in an “average” sense on structural loads for turbines farther from the touchdown center in the stable cases. Worst-case analyses show that the largest extreme loads, although somewhat dependent on the specific structural load variable considered, depend on the location of the turbine and on the prevailing atmospheric stability. The results of our calculations show the highest simulated foreaft tower bending moment to be 85.4 MN-m, which occurs at a unit sited in the array farther from touchdown center of the downburst initiated in a stable boundary layer.@en

Severe winds produced by thunderstorm downbursts pose a serious risk to the structural integrity of wind turbines. However, guidelines for wind turbine design (such as the International Electrotechnical Commission Standard, IEC 61400-1) do not describe the key physical characteristics of such events realistically. In this study, a large-eddy simulation model is employed to generate several idealized downburst events during contrasting atmospheric stability conditions that range from convective through neutral to stable. Wind and turbulence fields generated from this dataset are then used as inflow for a 5-MW land-based wind turbine model; associated turbine loads are estimated and compared for the different inflow conditions. We first discuss time-varying characteristics of the turbine-scale flow fields during the downbursts; next, we investigate the relationship between the velocity time series and turbine loads as well as the influence and effectiveness of turbine control systems (for blade pitch and nacelle yaw). Finally, a statistical analysis is conducted to assess the distinct influences of the contrasting stability regimes on extreme and fatigue loads on the wind turbine.@en

Stochastic simulation of turbulent inflow fields commonly used in wind turbine load computations is unable to account for contrasting states of atmospheric stability. Flow fields in the stable boundary layer, for instance, have characteristics such as enhanced wind speed and directional shear; these effects can influence loads on utility-scale wind turbines. To investigate these influences, we use large-eddy simulation (LES) to generate an extensive database of high-resolution (∼ 10 m), four-dimensional turbulent flow fields. Key atmospheric conditions (e.g., geostrophic wind) and surface conditions (e.g., aerodynamic roughness length) are systematically varied to generate a diverse range of physically realizable atmospheric stabilities. We show that turbine-scale variables (e.g., hub height wind speed, standard deviation of the longitudinal wind speed, wind speed shear, wind directional shear and Richardson number) are strongly interrelated. Thus, we strongly advocate that these variables should not be prescribed as independent degrees of freedom in any synthetic turbulent inflow generator but rather that any turbulence generation procedure should be able to bring about realistic sets of such physically realizable sets of turbine-scale flow variables. We demonstrate the utility of our LES-generated database in estimation of loads on a 5-MW wind turbine model. More importantly, we identify specific turbine-scale flow variables that are responsible for large turbine loads - e.g., wind speed shear is found to have a greater influence on out-of-plane blade bending moments for the turbine studied compared with its influence on other loads such as the tower-top yaw moment and the fore-aft tower base moment.Overall, our study suggests that LES may be effectively used to model inflow fields, to study characteristics of flow fields under various atmospheric stability conditions and to assess turbine loads for conditions that are not typically examined in design standards.@en

The late afternoon hours in the diurnal cycle precede the development of the nocturnal stable boundary layer. This “evening transition” (ET) period is often when energy demand peaks. This period also corresponds to the time of day that is a precursor to late-afternoon downbursts, a subject of separate interest. To capture physical characteristics of wind fields in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) during this ET period, particularly the interplay of shear and turbulence, stochastic simulation approaches, although more tractable, are not suitable. Large-eddy simulation (LES), on the other hand, may be used to generate high-resolution ABL turbulent flow fields. We present a suite of idealized LES four-dimensional flow fields that define a database representing different combinations of large-scale atmospheric conditions (characterized by associated geostrophic winds) and surface boundary conditions (characterized by surface heat fluxes). Our objective is to evaluate the performance of wind turbines during the ET period. Accordingly, we conduct a statistical analysis of turbine-scale wind field variables. We then employ the database of these LES-based inflow wind fields in aeroelastic simulations of a 5-MW wind turbine. We discuss how turbine loads change as the ET period evolves. We also discuss maximum and fatigue loads on the rotor and tower resulting from different ABL conditions. Results of this study suggest that, during the ET period, the prevailing geostrophic wind speed affects the mean and variance of longitudinal winds greatly and thus has significant influence on all loads except the yaw moment which is less sensitive to uniform and symmetric incoming flow. On the other hand, surface heat flux levels affect vertical turbulence and wind shear more and, as a result, only affect maximum blade flapwise bending and tower fore-aft bending loads.@en

Efficient spatial and temporal resolution of simulated inflow wind fields is important in order to represent wind turbine dynamics and derive load statistics for design. Using Fourier-based stochastic simulation of inflow turbulence, we first investigate loads for a utility-scale turbine in the neutral atmospheric boundary layer. Load statistics, spectra, and wavelet analysis representations for different space and time resolutions are compared. Next, large-eddy simulation (LES) is employed with space-time resolutions, justified on the basis of the earlier stochastic simulations, to again derive turbine loads. Extreme and fatigue loads from the two approaches used in inflow field generation are compared. On the basis of simulation studies carried out for three different wind speeds in the turbine's operating range, it is shown that inflow turbulence described using 10-meter spatial resolution and 1 Hz temporal resolution is adequate for assessing turbine loads. Such studies on the investigation of adequate filtering or resolution of inflow wind fields help to establish efficient strategies for LES and other physical or stochastic simulation needed in turbine loads studies.@en

The late afternoon hours in the diurnal cycle precede the development of the nocturnal stable boundary layer. This so-called evening transition (ET) period is often when energy demands peak. To capture physical characteristics of the wind fields in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)-particularly the interplay of shear and turbulence-during this evening transition period, stochastic simulation approaches though inadequate are commonly used to assess wind turbine loads because they are more tractable. Large-eddy simulation (LES), on the other hand, may be used to generate high-resolution ABL turbulent flow fields. We present a suite of idealized LES 4-dimensional flow fields that define a database representing different combinations of large-scale atmospheric conditions (characterized by, for instance, geostrophic wind) and surface boundary conditions (characterized by surface heat flux). Our ultimate objective is to evaluate the performance of wind turbines during the ET period. Accordingly, we conduct a statistical analysis of turbine-scale variables (including hub-height mean wind speed, standard deviation of wind speed in the streamwise direction, and wind speed shear) and discuss patterns of inter-relationships among them. Surface heat fluxes are seen to greatly influence wind shear. Finally, we apply the database of LES-based inflow wind fields in aeroelastic simulation of a 5-MW wind turbine model. We discuss how turbine loads change as the wind field evolves during the evening transition. We also discuss extreme and fatigue loads on the rotor and tower that result from different ABL conditions.@en

The late afternoon hours in the diurnal cycle precede the development of the nocturnal stable boundary layer. This so-called evening transition (ET) period is often when energy demands peak. To capture physical characteristics of the wind fields in the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL)-particularly the interplay of shear and turbulence-during this evening transition period, stochastic simulation approaches though inadequate are commonly used to assess wind turbine loads because they are more tractable. Large-eddy simulation (LES), on the other hand, may be used to generate high-resolution ABL turbulent flow fields. We present a suite of idealized LES 4-dimensional flow fields that define a database representing different combinations of large-scale atmospheric conditions (characterized by, for instance, geostrophic wind) and surface boundary conditions (characterized by surface heat flux). Our ultimate objective is to evaluate the performance of wind turbines during the ET period. Accordingly, we conduct a statistical analysis of turbine-scale variables (including hub-height mean wind speed, standard deviation of wind speed in the streamwise direction, and wind speed shear) and discuss patterns of inter-relationships among them. Surface heat fluxes are seen to greatly influence wind shear. Finally, we apply the database of LES-based inflow wind fields in aeroelastic simulation of a 5-MW wind turbine model. We discuss how turbine loads change as the wind field evolves during the evening transition. We also discuss extreme and fatigue loads on the rotor and tower that result from different ABL conditions.@en

The evening transition represents an interesting period lasting a few hours before the nocturnal stable boundary layer develops. It is also often a period of high energy demand. Large-eddy simulation is an efficient technique for the simulation of turbulent inflow fields that can be used in the computation of wind turbine loads. Unlike traditional methods (e.g., stochastic simulation), LES can be used to generate high-resolution turbulent flow fields in the ABL (atmospheric boundary layer) and to capture variations in key parameters related to wind turbulence and shear during the evening transition period. We conduct a number of idealized LES simulations to establish a database of four-dimensional flow fields with different combinations of atmospheric conditions (e.g., geostrophic wind) and surface boundary conditions (e.g., surface heat flux rate). A statistical analysis of turbine- scale variables (e.g., hub-height mean wind speed and standard deviation of wind speed in longitudinal direction, wind speed shear, etc.) reveals the high interrelations with each other. Further investigation shows that the surface heat flux rate plays an important role in the statistics of wind shear. Finally, we apply the database of inflow fields to the estimation of loads on a 5-MW wind turbine model. In particular, we study the variation in turbine load statistics during the evolution of the flow fields during the evening transition.@en

The evening transition represents an interesting period lasting a few hours before the nocturnal stable boundary layer develops. It is also often a period of high energy demand. Large-eddy simulation is an efficient technique for the simulation of turbulent inflow fields that can be used in the computation of wind turbine loads. Unlike traditional methods (e.g., stochastic simulation), LES can be used to generate high-resolution turbulent flow fields in the ABL (atmospheric boundary layer) and to capture variations in key parameters related to wind turbulence and shear during the evening transition period. We conduct a number of idealized LES simulations to establish a database of four-dimensional flow fields with different combinations of atmospheric conditions (e.g., geostrophic wind) and surface boundary conditions (e.g., surface heat flux rate). A statistical analysis of turbine- scale variables (e.g., hub-height mean wind speed and standard deviation of wind speed in longitudinal direction, wind speed shear, etc.) reveals the high interrelations with each other. Further investigation shows that the surface heat flux rate plays an important role in the statistics of wind shear. Finally, we apply the database of inflow fields to the estimation of loads on a 5-MW wind turbine model. In particular, we study the variation in turbine load statistics during the evolution of the flow fields during the evening transition.@en

Severe winds from thunderstorm outflows pose a challenge to wind turbine arrays. They can cause significant power ramps and disruption in energy production. They can also cause extreme structural damage to turbines as was seen in the severe storm event over the Buffalo Ridge Wind Farm on July 1, 2011. At this southwestern Minnesota site, blades from multiple turbines broke away and a tower buckled in the intense winds. In this study, we attempt to characterize meteorological conditions over the Buffalo Ridge Wind Farm area during this event. The observational network included NEXRAD radars, automated surface observation stations and a wind profiler. Storm reports from the Storm Prediction Center and damage surveys provided additional insight to the in situ measurements. Even with these datasets, assessing wind speeds around turbine rotors is difficult. Thus, Weather Research and Forecasting model simulations of the event are carried out that consider current and anticipated future operational model setups. This work addresses model spatial resolution versus parameterization complexity. Parameterizations of the planetary boundary layer and microphysics processes are evaluated based on their impact on storm dynamics and the low-level wind field. Results are also compared with the Wind Integration National Dataset, which utilizes data assimilation and an extensive continental domain. Enhanced horizontal resolution with simplistic parameterization helps increase resolved wind speeds and ramp intensity. Enhanced sophistication of microphysics parameterizations also helps increase resolved wind speeds, improve storm timing and structure and resolve higher values of turbulent kinetic energy in the lowest 1 km of the atmosphere.@en

Severe winds from thunderstorm outflows pose a challenge to wind turbine arrays. They can cause significant power ramps and disruption in energy production. They can also cause extreme structural damage to turbines as was seen in the severe storm event over the Buffalo Ridge Wind Farm on July 1, 2011. At this southwestern Minnesota site, blades from multiple turbines broke away and a tower buckled in the intense winds. In this study, we attempt to characterize meteorological conditions over the Buffalo Ridge Wind Farm area during this event. The observational network included NEXRAD radars, automated surface observation stations and a wind profiler. Storm reports from the Storm Prediction Center and damage surveys provided additional insight to the in situ measurements. Even with these datasets, assessing wind speeds around turbine rotors is difficult. Thus, Weather Research and Forecasting model simulations of the event are carried out that consider current and anticipated future operational model setups. This work addresses model spatial resolution versus parameterization complexity. Parameterizations of the planetary boundary layer and microphysics processes are evaluated based on their impact on storm dynamics and the low-level wind field. Results are also compared with the Wind Integration National Dataset, which utilizes data assimilation and an extensive continental domain. Enhanced horizontal resolution with simplistic parameterization helps increase resolved wind speeds and ramp intensity. Enhanced sophistication of microphysics parameterizations also helps increase resolved wind speeds, improve storm timing and structure and resolve higher values of turbulent kinetic energy in the lowest 1 km of the atmosphere.@en

Neutral boundary layer (NBL) flow fields, commonly used in turbine load studies and design, are generated using spectral procedures in stochastic simulation. For large utility-scale turbines, stable boundary layer (SBL) flow fields are of great interest because they are often accompanied by enhanced wind shear, wind veer, and even low-level jets (LLJs). The generation of SBL flow fields, in contrast to simpler stochastic simulation for NBL, requires computational fluid dynamics (CFD) procedures to capture the physics and noted characteristics-such as shear and veer-that are distinct from those seen in NBL flows. At present, large-eddy simulation (LES) is the most efficient CFD procedure for SBL flow field generation and related wind turbine loads studies. Design standards, such as from the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), provide guidance albeit with simplifying assumptions (one such deals with assuming constant variance of turbulence over the rotor) and recommend standard target turbulence power spectra and coherence functions to allow NBL flow field simulation. In contrast, a systematic SBL flow field simulation procedure has not been offered for design or for site assessment. It is instructive to compare LES-generated SBL flow fields with stochastic NBL flow fields and associated loads which we evaluate for a 5-MW turbine; in doing so, we seek to isolate distinguishing characteristics of wind shear, wind veer, and turbulence variation over the rotor plane in the alternative flow fields and in the turbine loads. Because of known differences in NBL-stochastic and SBL-LES wind fields but an industry preference for simpler stochastic simulation in design practice, this study investigates if one can reproduce stable atmospheric conditions using stochastic approaches with appropriate corrections for shear, veer, turbulence, etc. We find that such simple tuning cannot consistently match turbine target SBL load statistics, even though this is possible in some cases. As such, when there is a need to consider different stability regimes encountered by a wind turbine, easy solutions do not exist and large-eddy simulation at least for the stable boundary layer is needed.@en

Downburst events initialized at various hours during the evening transition (ET) period are simulated to determine the effects of ambient stability on the outflow of downburst winds. The simulations are performed using a pseudo-spectral large eddy simulation model at high resolution to capture both the large-scale flow and turbulence characteristics of downburst winds. First, a simulation of the ET is performed to generate realistic initial and boundary conditions for the subsequent downburst simulations. At each hour in the ET, an ensemble of downburst simulations is initialized separately from the ET simulation in which an elevated cooling source within the model domain generates negatively buoyant air to mimic downburst formation. The simulations show that while the stability regime changes, the ensemble mean of the peak wind speed remains fairly constant (between 35 and 38 m s−1) and occurs at the lowest model level for each simulation. However, there is a slight increase in intensity and decrease in the spread of the maximum outflow winds as stability increases as well as an increase in the duration over which these strongest winds persist. This appears to be due to the enhanced maintenance of the ring vortex that results from the low-level temperature inversion, increased ambient shear, and a lack of turbulence within the stable cases. Coherent turbulent kinetic energy and wavelet spectral analysis generally show increased energy in the convective cases and that energy increases across all scales as the downburst passes.@en