In 2020, as the world Energy demand keeps on rising (International Energy Agency (IEA), 2019), and with the global climate warming a reality (The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 2020), reducing our societal impact on Earth is of utmost importance. Energy and Climate have always been intrinsically related. Therefore, solving the Energy-Climate problem is a challenge where not one but several solutions should come together. Part of this global solution is the potential of geothermal resources. Geothermal energy is a renewable energy resource which has large potential to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels. Within the several uses of geothermal resources, a promising technique is titled Enhanced Geothermal Systems. More than renewable, this method has the potential to be sustainable. EGS consists of an originally low permeability reservoir rock that is artificially enhanced. The enhancement can be achieved by different stimulation techniques, such as mechanical, chemical, thermal or a combination of all. This thesis focuses on the mechanical EGS stimulation, where opening of existing fractures and creation of new ones is achieved by injecting a pressurized fluid in the reservoir rock formation. Such a process results in propagating a hydraulic fracture. The complexity of the EGS technique stands in predicting the hydraulic fracture propagation phenomena. EGS research and development is part of the GEMex goals. The GEMex project is a collaboration between Mexican institutions and the European Commission, dedicated to the development of non-conventional geothermal techniques. The Acoculco geothermal field, located in Puebla, is foreseen as a potential EGS. Because this field has been explored with two geothermal wells, and because an analogue exhumed system is available nearby, in the LasMinas area, this systemconstitutes a great research site for developing knowledge on EGS. @en

The use of the subsurface and the exploitation of subsurface resources require prior knowledge of fluid flow through fracture networks. For nuclear waste disposal, for the enhancement of hydrocarbon recovery from a field, or the development of an enhanced geothermal system (EGS), it is fundamental to constrain the fractures and the fracture network. This study is part of the GEMex project, an international collaboration of two consortia, one from Europe and one from Mexico. The research is based on exploration, characterization and assessment of two geothermal systems located in the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt, Los Humeros and Acoculco. In Acoculco, two wells reached very high temperatures, but did not find any fluids. For that reason, the Acoculco Caldera is foreseen as an EGS development site, hoping to connect existing wells to a productive zone. This implies that the fluid flow through the geothermal reservoir would be mainly fracture dominated. This study investigates the dependency of fracture permeability, constrained by fracture lengths and apertures, with stress field conditions. Simulations are computed in 2D, using COMSOL Multiphysics® Finite Elements Method Software, populated with mechanical data obtained in the rock physics laboratory and with dense discrete fracture networks generated from 1D scanline surveys measured in Las Minas analogue outcrops for Acoculco reservoir. The method offers a prediction for multiple scenarios of the reservoir flow characteristics which could be a major improvement in the development of the EGS technology.@en

In every tight formation reservoir, natural fractures play an important role for mass and energy transport and stress distribution. Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) make no exception, and stimulation aims at increasing the reservoir permeability to enhance fluid circulation and heat transport. EGS development relies upon the complex task of predicting accurate hydraulic fracture propagation pathway by taking into account reservoir heterogeneities and natural or preexisting fractures. In this contribution, we employ the variational phase-field method, which handles hydraulic fracture initiation, propagation, and interaction with natural fractures and is tested under varying conditions of rock mechanical properties and natural fractures distributions. We run bidimensional finite element simulations employing the open-source software OpenGeoSys and apply the model to simulate realistic stimulation scenarios, each one built from field data and considering complex natural fracture geometries in the order of a thousand of fractures. Key mechanical properties are derived from laboratory measurements on samples obtained in the field. Simulations results confirm the fundamental role played by natural fractures in stimulation's predictions, which is essential for developing successful EGS projects.@en

Understanding fractures and fracture networks is essential for the investigation and use of subsurface reservoirs. The aim is to predict the fractures and the fracture network when there is no direct access to subsurface images available. This article presents a universal workflow to numerically compute a discrete fracture network by combining the 1D scanline survey method, processed with the newly written SkaPy script, together with the multiple point statistic method (MPS). This workflow is applied to a potential geothermal site in Mexico called Acoculco. We use Las Minas outcrops and quarries as surface analogues for the Acoculco reservoir, as Las Minas and Acoculco are both formed by the influence of a plutonic intrusion into the Jurassic-Cretaceous carbonate sequence of the Sierra Madre Oriental in the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt (TMVB). The intrusion is associated with contact metamorphism and metasomatic phenomena, providing the basis for the mining activities at Las Minas. The results obtained using this workflow demonstrate the feasibility of the approach, which presents a solution combining the efficiency of data processing and an interpretation-driven approach to build realistic discrete fracture networks. This workflow can be used in the process of estimating the permeability of a fracture controlled reservoir, with using only scanline surveys data as input. This is essential in the process of evaluating the feasibility to develop an enhanced geothermal system.@en

Petrophysical and mechanical rock properties are key parameters for the characterization of the deep subsurface in different disciplines such as geothermal heat extraction, petroleum reservoir engineering or mining. They are commonly used for the interpretation of geophysical data and the parameterization of numerical models and thus are the basis for economic reservoir assessment. However, detailed information regarding petrophysical and mechanical rock properties for each relevant target horizon is often scarce, inconsistent or distributed over multiple publications. Therefore, subsurface models are often populated with generalized or assumed values resulting in high uncertainties. Furthermore, diagenetic, metamorphic and hydrothermal processes significantly affect the physiochemical and mechanical properties often leading to high geological variability. A sound understanding of the controlling factors is needed to identify statistical and causal relationships between the properties as a basis for a profound reservoir assessment and modeling. Within the scope of the GEMex project (EU H2020, grant agreement no. 727550), which aims to develop new transferable exploration and exploitation approaches for enhanced and super-hot unconventional geothermal systems, a new workflow was applied to overcome the gap of knowledge of the reservoir properties. Two caldera<span idCombining double low line"page572"/> complexes located in the northeastern Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt - the Acoculco and Los Humeros caldera - were selected as demonstration sites. The workflow starts with outcrop analog and reservoir core sample studies in order to define and characterize the properties of all key units from the basement to the cap rock as well as their mineralogy and geochemistry. This allows the identification of geological heterogeneities on different scales (outcrop analysis, representative rock samples, thin sections and chemical analysis) enabling a profound reservoir property prediction. More than 300 rock samples were taken from representative outcrops inside the Los Humeros and Acoculco calderas and the surrounding areas and from exhumed "fossil systems" in Las Minas and Zacatlán. Additionally, 66 core samples from 16 wells of the Los Humeros geothermal field and 8 core samples from well EAC1 of the Acoculco geothermal field were collected. Samples were analyzed for particle and bulk density, porosity, permeability, thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity, and heat capacity, as well as ultrasonic wave velocities, magnetic susceptibility and electric resistivity. Afterwards, destructive rock mechanical tests (point load tests, uniaxial and triaxial tests) were conducted to determine tensile strength, uniaxial compressive strength, Young's modulus, Poisson's ratio, the bulk modulus, the shear modulus, fracture toughness, cohesion and the friction angle. In addition, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) analyses were performed on 137 samples to provide information about the mineral assemblage, bulk geochemistry and the intensity of hydrothermal alteration. An extensive rock property database was created (Weydt et al., 2020; <a hrefCombining double low line"https://doi.org/10.25534/tudatalib-201.10">https://doi.org/10.25534/tudatalib-201.10</a>), comprising 34 parameters determined on more than 2160 plugs. More than 31 000 data entries were compiled covering volcanic, sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks from different ages (Jurassic to Holocene), thus facilitating a wide field of applications regarding resource assessment, modeling and statistical analyses..@en

The Los Humeros geothermal system is steam dominated and currently under exploration with 65 wells (23 producing). Having temperatures above 380&thinsp;°C, the system is characterized as a super hot geothermal system (SHGS). The development of such systems is still challenging due to the high temperatures and aggressive reservoir fluids which lead to corrosion and scaling problems. The geothermal system in Acoculco (Puebla, Mexico; so far only explored via two exploration wells) is characterized by temperatures of approximately 300&thinsp;°C at a depth of about 2&thinsp;km. In both wells no geothermal fluids were found, even though a well-developed fracture network exists. Therefore, it is planned to develop an enhanced geothermal system (EGS).For better reservoir understanding and prospective modeling, extensive geological, geochemical, geophysical and technical investigations are performed within the scope of the GEMex project. Outcrop analogue studies have been carried out in order to identify the main fracture pattern, geometry and distribution of geological units in the area and to characterize all key units from the basement to the cap rock regarding petro- and thermo-physical rock properties and mineralogy. Ongoing investigations aim to identify geological and structural heterogeneities on different scales to enable a more reliable prediction of reservoir properties. Beside geological investigations, physical properties of the reservoir fluids are determined to improve the understanding of the hydrochemical processes in the reservoir and the fluid-rock interactions, which affect the reservoir rock properties.@en