Liquid metal embrittlement (LME) during resistance spot welding (RSW) of Zn-coated twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel results in intergranular cracking driven by the interaction of liquid Zn, tensile stress, and the grain boundary (GB) network. This study investigates how GB misorientation and orientation relative to the electrode force loading axis influence the LME crack path across six weld times from 700 ms to 1700 ms. A comparative framework was developed in which, at each triple junction along the LME crack, the misorientation and angle relative to the loading axis of the chosen LME grain boundary are evaluated against those of the unchosen LME-free grain boundary. Σ3 coherent twin boundaries were LME-free at all weld times regardless of their orientation to the stress axis. Non-twin coincident site lattice (CSL) boundaries (Σ5 to Σ41) were predominantly LME-free at low weld times but progressively became LME GBs at high weld times, when their stress normalisation factor exceeded that of the competing boundary. The fraction of triple junctions where the LME grain boundary had the higher stress normalisation factor increased from 58% at 700 ms to 91% at 1700 ms, while the preference for the higher-misorientation-angle boundary declined from 73% to 56% over the same range. An LME susceptibility index incorporating grain boundary energy, temperature-dependent Zn diffusivity, and stress alignment is proposed as a framework for predicting crack path selection and guiding grain boundary engineering strategies (GBE) to reduce LME in resistance spot welded TWIP steel.

Liquid metal embrittlement (LME) during resistance spot welding (RSW) of twinning induced plasticity (TWIP) steel is primarily driven by stress-assisted grain boundary (GB) diffusion of zinc (Zn). Although GB diffusion is widely recognized as the dominant LME mechanism, experimental quantification is challenging due to resolution limitations. This study characterizes Zn diffusion in TWIP steel during RSW by conducting energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) line scans ahead of LME cracks in both the rolling direction (RD) and normal direction (ND) over weld times from 700 to 1700 ms. Results reveal that Zn diffusion distance increases with weld time, with consistently higher diffusion in the ND. To compare experimental measurements with diffusion theory, an FEA simulation based on Fick’s law was employed to approximate bulk Zn diffusion under varying temperatures. The model predicts Zn diffusion trends consistent with experimental observations. Although the diffusion distance predicted in the simulation exceeds measured values, directional trends are accurately captured. A theoretical framework to compare GB and bulk diffusion was proposed. GB diffusion distance of Zn is estimated to be approximately 30 times greater than bulk diffusion, establishing a quantitative link between weld time and Zn diffusion during RSW of TWIP steel.

Liquid metal embrittlement (LME) presents a major barrier to the widespread adoption of advanced high-strength steels in automotive applications. Despite extensive research, decoupling its early-stage cracking and propagation micromechanisms remains challenging and is a key research gap. Distinguishing these stages is crucial to understanding the conditions and factors that are favourable for LME and to developing mitigation strategies. Moreover, it can improve the accuracy of predictive models through detailed knowledge from initiation to propagation. In this study, this challenge is addressed by performing interrupted Gleeble hot tensile tests on a Zn-galvanised twinning-induced plasticity steel, simulating resistance spot welding conditions. This approach enables tracking LME progression under applied stress and identifying fracture micromechanisms at early and advanced stages of cracking. Additionally, existing theories on LME micromechanisms are often contradictory, highlighting the need for fundamental research in this area. The findings reveal that LME begins with the contact between liquid Zn and the substrate, leading to Zn diffusion into the substrate by diffusion-induced grain boundary migration and dissolution of the substrate by erosion-corrosion. This dissolution generates defects on the substrate and facilitates Fe diffusion into liquid Zn. Subsequently, defects are filled with liquid and the Zn-rich defect tips, connected to grain boundaries, enhance Zn grain boundary diffusion and weaken intergranular cohesion. Under tensile stress, these weakened boundaries decohere and lead to crack nucleation. Newly formed crack surfaces allow fresh Fe-rich liquid Zn to penetrate, continuing the process until fracture. Future work will focus on the influence of microstructure on LME crack growth.

Copper-steel functionally graded materials combine the thermal conductivity of copper with the mechanical strength of steel. This study examines the microstructural, mechanical, and thermophysical properties of the constitutive layers of copper-4130 steel functionally graded material fabricated via laser directed energy deposition, considering four intermediate compositions: 100% 4130, 75% 4130 – 25% Cu, 50% 4130 – 50% Cu, and 25% 4130 – 75% Cu. It was observed that the amount of Cu-rich terminal liquid governs crack formation and backfilling during solidification, while Cu-Fe liquid phase separation and Marangoni convection within the melt pool generate macrostructures composed of alternating Cu- and Fe-rich phases. Increasing Cu content progressively enhances thermal diffusivity due to the formation of interconnected copper regions. The application of quenching and tempering treatments induced softening of Cu-containing samples due to Cu recrystallization and diffusion from supersaturated Fe-rich phases. Although solidification cracking was only observed in 75% 4130–25% individual samples, the analysis of a complete multilayer structure revealed that interlayer mixing causes local compositional variations, extending cracking susceptibility beyond this region. These findings provide insights into the key factors governing laser directed energy deposition of copper-steel functionally graded materials, supporting process optimization and predictive model development to enhance manufacturability.

Improving the reliability of advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) for automotive applications requires a thorough understanding of liquid metal embrittlement (LME) crack propagation micromechanisms. This study investigates how microstructural features govern crack propagation paths in Zn-galvanised twinning-induced plasticty steel. LME was induced via Gleeble hot tensile tests at 800 °C, and a correlative analysis of the fracture surface's transversal plane revealed key crack-microstructure interactions. The results show that LME fracture is predominantly intergranular, preferentially occurring along high-angle, high-energy random grain boundaries (40°–56°). To quantify the effect of tensile stress on grain boundary segments, a normalised grain boundary stress factor was defined, ranging from 0 (no tensile stress, only shear) to 1 (pure tensile stress). Generally, high-angle grain boundaries require a stress factor below 0.2 for LME, while low-angle grain boundaries (θ <15°) require at least 0.5. Most coincident site lattice boundaries between Σ5 and Σ29 are affected by LME, whereas Σ3 boundaries remain resistant, even at high stress factor. However, cases where Zn penetration was absent despite high misorientation angles and stress factors, or where cracking occurred under the lowest stress factor (parallel to the loading axis), suggest additional, unidentified factors influence LME. These findings highlight the need for advanced three-dimensional modelling to capture the complex interaction between microstructure, stress state, and Zn penetration, not fully resolved in experiments. These insights could guide the development of LME-resistant steels, supporting their safe and reliable use in the automotive industry.