LOUPE, the Lunar Observatory for Unresolved Polarimetry of the Earth, is a small, robust spectro-polarimeter for observing the Earth as an exoplanet. Detecting Earth-like planets in stellar habitable zones is one of the key challenges of modern exoplanetary science. Characterizing such planets and searching for traces of life requires the direct detection of their signals. LOUPE provides unique spectral flux and polarization data of sunlight reflected by Earth, the only planet known to harbour life. These data will be used to test numerical codes to predict signals of Earth-like exoplanets, to test algorithms that retrieve planet properties, and to fine-tune the design and observational strategies of future space observatories. From the Moon, LOUPE will continuously see the entire Earth, enabling it to monitor the signal changes due to the planet's daily rotation, weather patterns and seasons, across all phase angles. Here, we present both the science case and the technology behind LOUPE's instrumental and mission design. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Astronomy from the Moon: the next decades'.@en

The circular polarisation of light is a property of electromagnetic radiation from which extensive information can be extracted. It is oft-neglected due to its small signal relative to linear polarisation and the need for advanced instrumentation in measuring it. Additionally, numerical modelling is complex as the full Stokes vector must always be computed. Circular polarisation is commonly induced through the multiple scattering of light by aerosols [?] and multiple reflections of light by rough surfaces [?]. Most interestingly, distinctive spectral circular polarimetric behaviour is exhibited by light reflected by organisms due to the homochiral molecular structure of all known organisms [?]. Especially fascinating is the unique circular polarimetric behaviour of light reflected by photosynthesising organisms at the absorption wavelength of the chlorophyll pigment [?]. This presents the previously unexplored possibility of circular polarimetry as a method for identifying and characterising the presence of organisms, a method which could be applied in the hunt for extraterrestrial life. To date, few telescopes exist that measure circular polarisation and none that have been deployed in space. Observations of the circular polarisation reflected by other planets in the solar system have been made with ground-based telescopes, with significant results [?]. However, none of these observations have been made at the phase angles at which exoplanets will be observed. Also, none have been made of the Earth, which is the logical starting point for the study of biologically induced circular polarisation signals. This introduces the need for numerical modelling to determine the extent to which circular polarisation is present in light reflected by exoplanets or the Earth. In this study, we model the multiple scattering and reflection of light using the doubling-adding method [?]. We will present circular polarisation signals for both spatially resolved and spatially unresolved planets, using various atmospheric and surface properties and across a range of phase angles. As a test, the calculated degree of circular polarisation resulting from the multiple scattering of light in an atmosphere with varying properties was compared with results presented by Kawata  and was found to be in agreement. Initial modelling of the atmospheric scattering of light by a planetary disk has shown a presence of degree of circular polarisation in the order of 104. This represents a static case with one cloudy hemisphere, one cloudless hemisphere and a Lambertian surface. Results containing varied patchy cloud patterns shall also be presented in a bid to reflect the random nature of planetary cloud cover. We will also present the calculated degree of circular polarisation of planets with various cloud coverage and a circularly polarising surface in order to discover the influence of organisms on the numerical results. @en

The circular polarisation of light is a property of electromagnetic radiation from which extensive information can be extracted. It is oft-neglected due to its small signal relative to linear polarisation and the need for advanced instrumentation in measuring it. Additionally, numerical modelling is complex as the full Stokes vector must always be computed. Circular polarisation is commonly induced through the multiple scattering of light by aerosols [?] and multiple reflections of light by rough surfaces [?]. Most interestingly, distinctive spectral circular polarimetric behaviour is exhibited by light reflected by organisms due to the homochiral molecular structure of all known organisms [?]. Especially fascinating is the unique circular polarimetric behaviour of light reflected by photosynthesising organisms at the absorption wavelength of the chlorophyll pigment [?]. This presents the previously unexplored possibility of circular polarimetry as a method for identifying and characterising the presence of organisms, a method which could be applied in the hunt for extraterrestrial life. To date, few telescopes exist that measure circular polarisation and none that have been deployed in space. Observations of the circular polarisation reflected by other planets in the solar system have been made with ground-based telescopes, with significant results [?]. However, none of these observations have been made at the phase angles at which exoplanets will be observed. Also, none have been made of the Earth, which is the logical starting point for the study of biologically induced circular polarisation signals. This introduces the need for numerical modelling to determine the extent to which circular polarisation is present in light reflected by exoplanets or the Earth. In this study, we model the multiple scattering and reflection of light using the doubling-adding method [?]. We will present circular polarisation signals for both spatially resolved and spatially unresolved planets, using various atmospheric and surface properties and across a range of phase angles. As a test, the calculated degree of circular polarisation resulting from the multiple scattering of light in an atmosphere with varying properties was compared with results presented by Kawata  and was found to be in agreement. Initial modelling of the atmospheric scattering of light by a planetary disk has shown a presence of degree of circular polarisation in the order of 104. This represents a static case with one cloudy hemisphere, one cloudless hemisphere and a Lambertian surface. Results containing varied patchy cloud patterns shall also be presented in a bid to reflect the random nature of planetary cloud cover. We will also present the calculated degree of circular polarisation of planets with various cloud coverage and a circularly polarising surface in order to discover the influence of organisms on the numerical results. @en

We present the design of a point-and-shoot non-imaging full-Stokes spectropolarimeter dedicated to detecting life on Earth from an orbiting platform like the ISS. We specifically aim to map circular polarization in the spectral features of chorophyll and other biopigments for our planet as a whole. These non-zero circular polarization signatures are caused by homochirality of the molecular and supramolecular configurations of organic matter, and are considered the most unambiguous biomarker. To achieve a fully solid-state snapshot design, we implement a novel spatial modulation that completely separates the circular and linear polarization channels. The polarization modulator consists of a patterned liquid-crystal quarter-wave plate inside the spectrograph slit, which also constitutes the first optical element of the instrument. This configuration eliminates cross-talk between linear and circular polarization, which is crucial because linear polarization signals are generally much stronger than the circular polarization signals. This leads to a quite unorthodox optical concept for the spectrograph, in which the object and the pupil are switched. We discuss the general design requirements and trade-offs of LSDpol (Life Signature Detection polarimeter), a prototype instrument that is currently under development.@en

We present the design of a point-and-shoot non-imaging full-Stokes spectropolarimeter dedicated to detecting life on Earth from an orbiting platform like the ISS. We specifically aim to map circular polarization in the spectral features of chorophyll and other biopigments for our planet as a whole. These non-zero circular polarization signatures are caused by homochirality of the molecular and supramolecular configurations of organic matter, and are considered the most unambiguous biomarker. To achieve a fully solid-state snapshot design, we implement a novel spatial modulation that completely separates the circular and linear polarization channels. The polarization modulator consists of a patterned liquid-crystal quarter-wave plate inside the spectrograph slit, which also constitutes the first optical element of the instrument. This configuration eliminates cross-talk between linear and circular polarization, which is crucial because linear polarization signals are generally much stronger than the circular polarization signals. This leads to a quite unorthodox optical concept for the spectrograph, in which the object and the pupil are switched. We discuss the general design requirements and trade-offs of LSDpol (Life Signature Detection polarimeter), a prototype instrument that is currently under development.@en

In this work, we analyse linear polarization data of the planet at a distance, obtained with the Extreme Polarimeter (ExPo) on the William Herschel Telescope on La Palma. These spatially resolved, high-accuracy polarization observations of Venus show faint circular patterns centered on the sub-solar point that are absent in the flux observations. So far, careful analyses have ruled out instrumental effects which leaves us to wonder about atmospheric properties on Venus as the cause of the circular patterns. Using numerical simulations of the flux and polarization of sunlight that is reflected by Venus, we have investigated the relation between the observed patterns and several atmospheric properties, such as variations in particle sizes, composition, density and altitude. We discuss the plausibility of the possible causes in the view of the current knowledge of the composition and dynamical processes in Venus’s atmosphere.@en

The Mid-infrared E-ELT Imager and Spectrograph (METIS) for the European Extremely Large Telescope (E- ELT) consists of diffraction-limited imagers that cover 3 to 14 microns with medium resolution (R 5000) long slit spectroscopy, and an integral field spectrograph for high spectral resolution spectroscopy (R 100,000) over the L and M bands. We present our approach for high contrast imaging with METIS, covering diffraction suppression with coronagraphs, the removal of residual aberrations using QACITS1, 2 and Phase Sorting Interferometry (PSI),3 and simulations demonstrating the expected contrast.@en

The Mid-infrared E-ELT Imager and Spectrograph (METIS) for the European Extremely Large Telescope (E- ELT) consists of diffraction-limited imagers that cover 3 to 14 microns with medium resolution (R 5000) long slit spectroscopy, and an integral field spectrograph for high spectral resolution spectroscopy (R 100,000) over the L and M bands. We present our approach for high contrast imaging with METIS, covering diffraction suppression with coronagraphs, the removal of residual aberrations using QACITS1, 2 and Phase Sorting Interferometry (PSI),3 and simulations demonstrating the expected contrast.@en

Young giant exoplanets emit infrared radiation that can be linearly polarized up to several percent. This linear polarization can trace: 1) the presence of atmospheric cloud and haze layers, 2) spatial structure, e.g. cloud bands and rotational attening, 3) the spin axis orientation and 4) particle sizes and cloud top pressure. We introduce a novel high-contrast imaging scheme that combines angular dierential imaging (ADI) and accurate near-infrared polarimetry to characterize self-luminous giant exoplanets. We implemented this technique at VLT/SPHEREIRDIS and developed the corresponding observing strategies, the polarization calibration and the data-reduction approaches. The combination of ADI and polarimetry is challenging, because the eld rotation required for ADI negatively aects the polarimetric performance. By combining ADI and polarimetry we can characterize planets that can be directly imaged with a very high signal-to-noise ratio. We use the IRDIS pupil-tracking mode and combine ADI and principal component analysis to reduce speckle noise. We take advantage of IRDIS' dual-beam polarimetric mode to eliminate dierential eects that severely limit the polarimetric sensitivity (at-elding errors, dierential aberrations and seeing), and thus further suppress speckle noise. To correct for instrumental polarization eects, we apply a detailed Mueller matrix model that describes the telescope and instrument and that has an absolute polarimetric accuracy 0:1%. Using this technique we have observed the planets of HR 8799 and the (sub-stellar) companion PZ Tel B. Unfortunately, we do not detect a polarization signal in a rst analysis. We estimate preliminary 1 upper limits on the degree of linear polarization of 1% and 0:1% for the planets of HR 8799 and PZ Tel B, respectively. The achieved sub-percent sensitivity and accuracy show that our technique has great promise for characterizing exoplanets through direct-imaging polarimetry.@en

Young giant exoplanets emit infrared radiation that can be linearly polarized up to several percent. This linear polarization can trace: 1) the presence of atmospheric cloud and haze layers, 2) spatial structure, e.g. cloud bands and rotational attening, 3) the spin axis orientation and 4) particle sizes and cloud top pressure. We introduce a novel high-contrast imaging scheme that combines angular dierential imaging (ADI) and accurate near-infrared polarimetry to characterize self-luminous giant exoplanets. We implemented this technique at VLT/SPHEREIRDIS and developed the corresponding observing strategies, the polarization calibration and the data-reduction approaches. The combination of ADI and polarimetry is challenging, because the eld rotation required for ADI negatively aects the polarimetric performance. By combining ADI and polarimetry we can characterize planets that can be directly imaged with a very high signal-to-noise ratio. We use the IRDIS pupil-tracking mode and combine ADI and principal component analysis to reduce speckle noise. We take advantage of IRDIS' dual-beam polarimetric mode to eliminate dierential eects that severely limit the polarimetric sensitivity (at-elding errors, dierential aberrations and seeing), and thus further suppress speckle noise. To correct for instrumental polarization eects, we apply a detailed Mueller matrix model that describes the telescope and instrument and that has an absolute polarimetric accuracy 0:1%. Using this technique we have observed the planets of HR 8799 and the (sub-stellar) companion PZ Tel B. Unfortunately, we do not detect a polarization signal in a rst analysis. We estimate preliminary 1 upper limits on the degree of linear polarization of 1% and 0:1% for the planets of HR 8799 and PZ Tel B, respectively. The achieved sub-percent sensitivity and accuracy show that our technique has great promise for characterizing exoplanets through direct-imaging polarimetry.@en

ESA’s Venus Express mission has revealed our neighbouring planet to be a highly dynamic world, with everchanging cloud properties and structures, wind speeds that increase in time, and variable concentrations of atmospheric trace gases such as SO2. The SPICAV-IR instrument on Venus Express has provided us with close-up linear polarization data of sunlight reflected by Venus’s clouds and hazes, that allows a characterisation of their composition and particle sizes. Here, we analyse linear polarization data of the planet at a distance, obtained with the Extreme Polarimeter (ExPo) on the William Herschel Telescope on La Palma. These spatially resolved, high-accuracy polarization observations of Venus show faint circular patterns centered on the sub-solar point that are absent in the flux observations. So far, careful analyses have ruled out instrumental effects which leaves us to wonder about atmospheric properties as the cause of the circular patterns. Using numerical simulations of the flux and polarization of sunlight that is reflected by Venus, we have investigated the relation between the observed patterns and several atmospheric properties, such as variations in particle sizes, composition, density and altitude. We discuss the plausibility of the possible causes in the view of the current knowledge of the composition and dynamical processes in Venus’s atmosphere. @en