The aim of this study was to identify relevant relations between the adoption of electric vehicles at public charging stations and the characteristics of the neighbourhood through a case study in the Netherlands. The study started with creating such measurements of EV adoption in the transaction data of public chargers in the MRA-Elektrisch region. Subsequently, the relevant variables found in the literature study on the drivers of electric vehicle adoption have been translated into a set of neighbourhood characteristics using open data sources. Based on the identified relationships, a further analysis was conducted in order to develop policy recommendation for the municipality. It is suggested that these municipalities increase the capacity of public charging points in high-populated regions, as both the relative and absolute numbers of residents were positively correlated with the occupancy rate. Furthermore, it is recommended to prioritise the neighbourhoods with high potential and a high potential EV user per charger ratio that is high under current conditions for the placement of additional chargers.

This thesis explores the transformation of the global transportation and energy sectors through the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs). EVs have emerged as a crucial solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable energy sources. The associated charging infrastructure poses challenges and opportunities for Charge Point Operators (CPOs). Among the various charging solutions, Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology offers significant potential for CPOs. However, prior research has not comprehensively addressed the financial implications, operational costs, and revenue streams specific to CPOs, particularly within the energy market. The primary objective is to investigate public charging network business models through V2G integration in the Netherlands from a CPO perspective. The central research question is whether CPOs in the Netherlands can enhance their business model through V2G in the EPEX DAM market. The primary focus is on assessing the financial impact of V2G on CPO operations, considering factors such as electricity procurement costs, user behavior, and location-specific dynamics. The methodology combines empirical analysis, simulation modeling, and data-driven insights. It commences with a literature review on EV charging, V2G technology, and CPO business models. Stakeholder consultations provide real-world insights into business dynamics and cost structures. An Excel-based simulation model replicates various V2G charging scenarios using data from the European Power Exchange (EPEX) Spot Day-Ahead Market (DAM). A base case charging scenario, involving both V2G and regular charging, is developed, and the results are used to assess CPO profitability in the Public Charging Network business case. An extended Cost-Benefit Excel model evaluates the profitability of the CPO's business model after integrating the reduced variable cost of procured electricity through V2G within the evolving EPEX DAM landscape. It considers factors such as battery degradation, customer compensation, charging behavior, and market dynamics. The simulation models reveal pivotal findings. V2G integration strategically implemented has the potential to boost CPO profitability by significantly reducing electricity procurement costs. User compensation schemes, charging patterns, usage rates, and location-specific demand dynamics significantly influence earnings. Sensitivity analysis underscores the importance of usage rates, cost reduction for procured electricity, and network expansion in driving profitability. In conclusion, this thesis uncovers the potential of V2G technology to enhance EV charging infrastructure while contributing to grid stability and renewable energy integration. The findings provide strategic guidance for CPOs to focus on densely populated cities to maximize revenue and profits. The insights extend beyond CPOs and are relevant to stakeholders within the EV charging ecosystem.

Public charging infrastructure serves as essential support in facilitating the sustainable use of EVs. The growing demand for EVs brings new challenges around designing and operating the corresponding public infrastructure for the CPO. The form this infrastructure will take is uncertain due to the wide range of charging technologies available (and many more in the pipeline) and varying policy instruments. These influences make it difficult to find consensus for designing a public infrastructure. A literature study identified the following two research gaps: (1) insufficient studies investigated combinations of technical innovations and policy instruments to improve the success of public charging infrastructure, and (2) the perspective of the CPO is undervalued in current literature. To overcome these gaps, a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) was conducted to find possible combinations of technical innovations and policy instruments the CPO can implement to improve the success of public charging infrastructure. This way, the MCDA supports the CPO in making infrastructure design decisions.

The automotive industry is transitioning to electric vehicles (EVs), creating a higher electricity demand. Concurrently, the utility sector is shifting to a renewable energy system. Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology allows EVs to both consume and deliver electricity to the grid, introducing a dynamic interaction. However, integrating EVs into the grid raises challenges related to grid safety, such as the risk of overloading. To address this, additional technical specifications are needed. The EV charging industry relies greatly on international standards. Therefore, market players seek clear guidelines for products enabling bidirectional power flows. However, technical requirements specific to V2G systems remain unspecified or divergent, creating obstacles for technology development and implementation by the industry. Harmonisation and standardisation of technical specifications are considered effective means for overcoming these challenges. However, existing literature lacks insights into the necessity and realisation of harmonisation. This study fills this gap by exploring the extent, reasons, and coordination efforts required for harmonisation of technical requirements specific to V2G. Particularly, this study investigates barriers stemming from the technical implementation of V2G and their impact on the adoption by key stakeholders. An open-minded approach following the grounded theory principles identified primary obstacles in the technical implementation of V2G. The grounded theory approach included conducting semi-structured interviews with ten participants, which helped explore perspectives and needs of five key stakeholder groups. In addition, a comprehensive framework is consulted to provide a theoretical lens assisting the interpretation and analysis of the empirical results. Integrating the widely adopted Institutional Analysis & Development (IAD) framework and Multi-Level Perspective (MLP) aided in identifying and understanding the interplay between institutional arrangements, such as technical requirements and standards, and technology adoption. This novel approach has proven to be valuable in analysing the relationships between micro-level interactions (IAD) and macro-level influences (MLP). This study has shown it is unclear to niche actors how to become "V2G-ready" due to a lack of clear guidelines, especially related to the charging standard (AC or DC), the communication standard between system operators (DSOs) and charge point operators (CPOs), grid connection codes, and who should be in control of discharging schedules. Requirements deficiency and disparities and the discussion on the control authority show constraining effects on the conditions for pilot projects. Realistic pilot conditions are shown to be essential for scaling V2G activities, and pilot projects are considered vital for exploring the possibilities of V2G technology. However, lacking conditions obstruct the development of definitive V2G configurations and designs necessary for large-scale diffusion. This study has shown two chicken-and-egg dilemmas play a significant role in the slow adoption of V2G. Niche actors are awaiting each other to continue their research and development activities. EV manufacturers demand V2G-compatible EV supply equipment (EVSE) to experiment with V2G technology, while EVSE manufacturers and CPOs await V2G-compatible EVs. Moreover, niche actors await definitive technical standards, while standardisation organisations and regulators are reliant on insights retrieved from practical experimentation to develop effective standards and regulations. These dynamics require a coordinated approach to empower and stabilise the development of V2G technology and enable widespread diffusion. Niche actors should be at the front of the developments, so active involvement with standardisation and requirement-setting is advised. Besides, collaborations between niche actors across Europe should be stimulated to prevent market fragmentation and segmentation, since these effects are detrimental to all V2G actors and the system in general. Therefore, the barriers identified pose a significant influence on pilot conditions, constraining experimentation, implementation, and the overall development of V2G technology.