Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) could help balance and regulate the electricity grid. While research papers have focused primarily on the technological potential of V2G services and consumer adaptation, the institutional barriers obstructing the industry from implementing V2G are hardly researched. This study, therefore, explored these institutional barriers using grounded theory and stakeholder interviews. The results showed an array of barriers related to communication standard ambiguity, non-harmonised and undefined network codes, charging standard ambiguity resulting in uncertainties and financial risks, and conflicting stakeholder needs about who should control V2G operations. We conclude that large-scale adoption of V2G in Europe is hindered because it is unclear to the actors involved how to become ”V2G-ready”. This lack of clarity results in an innovation that is in a wait-and-see phase. We give practical recommendations to potentially become V2G-ready and for further research.

Electric vehicle (EV) adoption in the Netherlands has been increasing, as a response to climate change and urban pollution. A scale up of the public charging infrastructure is required to satisfy the future charging demand. This is a challenge for the policy makers and stakeholders involved, as there are still many uncertainties in EV adoption and mobility. The goal of this research is to identify pathways to scale-up the public EV charging infrastructure in residential areas. The research takes into account various perspectives and challenges related to the EV transition, such as mobility policy, charging behavior, energy infrastructure, and accessibility of the charging infrastructure. The main research question is:

”How can public EV charging infrastructure in residential areas be scaled-up?”

The study contains five chapters to answer this question. Four of these chapters include studies that were published in journals and conference proceedings. The research approach consists of literature studies, data analysis, policy analysis,multiple criteria analysis, and agent-based modeling. The individual studies all contribute to understanding different parts of the charging system. The following paragraphs summarize each of the five studies.

During the COVID-19—related lockdowns (2020–2022), mobility patterns and charging needs were substantially affected. Policies such as work from home, lockdowns, and curfews reduced traffic and commuting significantly. This global pandemic may have also substantially changed mobility patterns on the long term and therefore the need for electric vehicle charging infrastructure. This paper analyzes changes in electric charging in the Netherlands for different user groups during different phases of the COVID-19 lockdown to assess the effects on EV charging needs. Charging needs dropped significantly during this period, which also changed the distribution of the load on the electricity grid throughout the day. Curfews affected the start times of charging sessions during peak hours of grid consumption. Infrastructure dedicated to commuters was used less intensively, and the charging needs of professional taxi drivers were drastically reduced during lockdown periods. These trends were partially observed during a post–lockdown measuring period of roughly 8 months, indicating a longer shift in mobility and charging patterns.

Electric vehicles have penetrated the Dutch market, which increases the potential for decreased local emissions, the use and storage of sustainable energy, and the roll-out and use of electric car-sharing business models. This development also raises new potential issues such as increased electricity demand, a lack of social acceptance, and infrastructural challenges in the built environment. Relevant stakeholders, such as policymakers and service providers, need to align their values and prioritize these aspects. Our study investigates the prioritization of 11 Dutch decision-makers in the field of public electric vehicle charging. These decision-makers prioritized different indicators related to measurements (e.g., EV adoption rates or charge point profitability), organization (such as fast- or smart-charging), and developments (e.g., the development of mobility-service markets) using the best-worst method. The indicators within these categories were prioritized for three different scenario's in time. The results reveal that priorities will shift from EV adoption and roll-out of infrastructure to managing peak demand, using more sustainable charging techniques (such as V2G), and using sustainable energy towards 2030. Technological advancements and autonomous charging techniques will become more relevant in a later time period, around 2040. Environmental indicators (e.g., local emissions) were consistently valued low, whereas mobility indicators were valued differently across participants, indicating a lack of consensus. Smart charging was consistently valued higher than other charging techniques, independent of time period. The results also revealed that there are some distinct differences between the priorities of policymakers and service providers. Having a systematic overview of what aspects matter supports the policy discussion around EVs in the built environment.

Charging infrastructure in neighborhoods is essential for inhabitants who use electric vehicles. The development of public charging infrastructure can be complex because of its dependency on local grid conditions, the responsibility to prepare for anticipated fleet growth policies, and the implicit biases that may occur with the allocation of charging resources. How can accessible EV charging be ensured in the future, regardless of energy infrastructure and socio-economic status of the neighborhood? This study aims to represent the decision-making in the allocation of public charging infrastructure and ensure that various key issues are accounted for in the short-term and long-term decision making. The paper first identifies these issues, then describes the decision-making process, and all of these are summarized in a visual overview describing the short-term and long-term decision loop considering various key indicators. A case study area is identified by comparing locally available data sources in the City of Amsterdam for future simulation.

In the Netherlands and some neighbouring European countries, the electric vehicle (EV) charging sector is receiving attention from market regulators. Concerns relating to competitive processes in this developing and rapidly growing sector are being raised. This paper identifies specific markets where regulation can help increase the level of competition for the development of affordable and accessible public charging infrastructure, both within the built environment (slow charging) as well as along highways (fast charging). Barriers to competition include exclusive concessions at the municipality level and long-term exclusive concessions at locations along highways.

Global climate agreements call for action and an integrated perspective on mobility, energy and overall consumption. Municipalities in dense, urban areas are challenged with facilitating this transition with limited space and energy resources, and with future uncertainties. One important aspect of the transition is the adoption of electric vehicles, which includes the adequate design of charging infrastructure. Another important goal is a modal shift in transportation. This study investigated over 80 urban mobility policy measures that are in the policy roadmap of two of the largest municipalities of the Netherlands. This analysis consists of an inventory of policy measures, an evaluation of their environmental effects and conceptualizations of the policy objectives and conditions within the mobility transitions. The findings reveal that the two municipalities have similarities in means, there is still little anticipation of future technology and policy conditions could be further satisfied by introducing tailored measures for specific user groups.