In this chapter, the work that is being done in relation to machine-cargo interactions relevant to deep-sea mining is elaborated. To ensure safe and efficient operations across the entire mining value chain, it is important to be aware of the implications of certain design and process decisions. An overview of mechanisms influencing the mechanical response of the bulk materials and the main effects leading to (mechanical) degradation of the ore, e.g., fragmentation, abrasion, is presented. Although the concepts are applicable to each of the deep-sea deposits, our focus is on polymetallic nodules in a riser-based concept. Results are discussed of experiments in which nodules are fragmented due to particle-particle collisions and collisions with different handling equipment, such as the seabed harvester, riser pipe, pump impeller, pipe bends, etc. Next to fragmentation, degradation due to abrasion occurs due to particles rolling, sliding, and colliding with each other, resulting in the generation of nodule fines. Based on the same set of nodules, mechanical bulk properties of dry and wet nodules are studied. The obtained results provide relevant insights for the design of the nodules handling equipment. Furthermore, modelling approaches applied to other fragile bulk materials where the breakage and generation of fines play an important role are outlined. It is described how these modelling approaches can assist in the design of handling equipment, and recommendations are given for next steps to further optimize their design.

Hydraulic transport pipelines in the dredging, mining and deep sea mining are designed using steady-state methods. However, these methods cannot predict density wave formation. Density waves form a risk for pipeline blockages, therefore there is a need to understand and preferably be able to model the process. The density waves studied in this research are caused by a stationary sediment deposit in the pipeline. This article explores the development of a new transient design model, based on 1-dimensional-two-layer Driftflux CFD. The two layers model the exchange of sediment between the turbulent suspension, and a stationary bed layer, and can therefore model density wave amplification. An empirical erosion-sedimentation closure relationship is applied to model the sediment exchange between the two layers, and is calibrated using experiments. The final model is also validated against a second experiment, specifically for density wave amplification. The experiments and the model show good agreement on the erosion of a stationary bed layer and the growth rate of a density wave and the amplitude of the density wave.

Self-amplifying density waves in hydraulic transport pipelines is a scarcely researched topic. Density waves are in essence the result of a spatial redistributing effect and clustering of solids in hydraulic transport pipelines. Self-amplifying density waves are very undesirable for practical applications, as these waves increasing the risk of pipeline blockages. The two available experimental studies (Talmon et al., 2007; Matoušek and Krupička, 2013) report conflicting properties of the density waves, such as wave length and wave celerity. This new experimental research aims to shed light on the reported differences, by broadly varying particle size and concentration in a new dedicated experiment. The main highlight of this research is that two separate mechanisms were identified that can cause density waves, and Talmon et al. (2007) and Matoušek and Krupička (2013) in hindsight were studying the two different mechanism respectively. Both wave type mechanisms come into effect at mixture velocities close to the deposit limit velocity, and require a stationary bed layer to initiate. The first mechanism is caused by an imbalance of erosion and sedimentation of the bed layer, which is predominant for fine sand particles (∼242μm and ∼308μm in this research). The second mechanism occurs when the bed layer starts sliding, instead of being eroded, and is specific for larger sand sizes (∼617μm and ∼1.08mm in this research). These two mechanisms are clearly distinguishable, having different wave lengths, celerity, amplitudes and amplification rates. The results also show a clear relationship between the mean concentration of a density wave, the wave amplitude and wave celerity specific for each of the two mechanisms.

Hydraulic transport pipelines are used in dredging, (wet) mining and deep sea mining. These pump-pipeline systems are typically designed using steady-state principles. However, recent cases have shown that steady-state design does not always guarantee stable pipelines. Transients like self-amplifying density waves have shown to be able to destabilize pump-pipeline systems, increasing the risk of blockages and/or pump-drive failures. In this dissertation, these unstable transients were studied, and the mechanisms behind three density wave types were unraveled. Furthermore, this work aimed at developing new transient modelling techniques using 1D-Driftflux-CFD, which can predict density wave amplification. This 1D-Driftflux model was used to study new design methods, such as strategically lowering the pipe diameter in certain sections of a pipeline, and applying flow feed-back control. These new insights also open the way towards making long distance pipelines more efficient, such that they can transport sediment at higher concentration and/or lower flow velocities.

Pipelines with combined vertical and horizontal pipes can be subject to transient redistribution and accumulation of sediment, also referred to as transient density wave amplification. This process is important to understand for dredging and especially for deep sea mining applications, where a horizontally oriented jumper hose is connected to a long vertical riser. Transient accumulation could ultimately lead to pipeline blockages or pump drive failures. Density wave amplification is partly caused by a velocity difference of particles between horizontal and vertical pipes, and partly by system wide interaction between density waves and the centrifugal pump. Density wave amplification was witnessed at mixture velocities far exceeding the deposit limit velocity (de Hoog et al. 2022), and as such the stability of the pipeline cannot be predicted by designing a pipeline operating point with conventional steady-state design methods. Specifically, the conventional steady-state design methodology only considers steady-state resistance and pump curves to obtain an operating point, and aims to design the operating point above the deposit limit velocity. Transient modeling using 1D Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) has shown to be able to predict density wave amplification. In this article the 1D Driftflux model developed by de Hoog et al. (2022) is applied to investigate the influence of system parameters on the rate of density wave amplification. In the simulations the following system parameters are varied: pump drive characteristics, the diameter of the horizontal pipes and the application of flow feedback control.

The hydraulic transport of sediments in sediment–water multiphase mixtures is an important process in nature and many industrial applications. The flows are characterized by complex transient phenomena, in which the overall system scale and the particle scale are equally important. Experimental research into dense mixture flows is focused on measurement of flowrates, differential pressures and concentrations of the suspended sediments. Concentration measurements are especially challenging in the case of coarse particles (beyond millimeter size scale) flowing in dense mixtures, limiting the range of available sensors for accurately measuring the in-situ solids concentrations. For the investigation of transient processes, a quick sensor response is required, which makes concentration measurement based on mixture conductivity an interesting option. This study is focused on combined concentration and pressure measurements in dense sediment–water mixtures with coarse particles in a vertically oriented closed conduit, using differential pressure sensors over the vertical segments and conductivity probes for measuring the mixture concentration. We experimentally investigated the dispersion process of an initially densely packed batch of sand and gravel by measuring the concentration on different segments of the conduit, resulting in data on mixture wall shear stresses for different sand and gravel mixtures and data of attenuation of concentration gradients in vertical upward and downward flow, in the conduit horizontal top section and in the centrifugal pump. We describe in the detail the sensor calibration and data processing method, giving a best practice for the use of conductivity concentration sensors in dense coarse particle mixtures, and we suggest a novel method for analysis of density wave amplification and attenuation based on concentration measurements in general, which allows for the detailed analysis of transient multiphase flow phenomena at pipe system component level.

The mining of polymetallic nodules from the seafloor at depths down to 6000m requires the excavation of nodules with a seafloor mining tool, the transport of nodules as a slurry through a jumper hose connecting the mining tool to a vertical hydraulic transport system and the transport of the nodules through the vertical lifting pipe. We focus on a concept with conventional hydraulic transport, using a series of centrifugal pump booster stations. The nodules will be transported in different flow regimes, ranging from a sliding bed (in the jumper hose) to a homogeneous suspension (vertical flow). Each regime gives rise to degradation of the nodules in a different way. It is important to understand the degradation mechanisms in detail in order to predict the particle size distribution of the slurry leaving the riser. This particle size distribution is a key design parameter for design of processing equipment and for environmental impact assessment. In this article we present the results of experimental work on abrasive wear (particle-wall interaction) and attrition (particle-particle interaction) of polymetallic nodules from the Clarion Clipperton Zone and we discuss its applicability to engineering practice.

Polymetallic nodules provide an alternative source of valuable metals. Nodules from the seabed of the Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ), a prospective mining area, are typically abundant at depths of around 5 ​km. Mining these nodules comprises excavation or pick-up of nodules and hydraulic transport of nodules from the seafloor to the surface. The particle size distribution of the nodules, an important design parameter, will change during transport under influence of different processes. One of these processes is impact fragmentation, especially occurring in centrifugal pumps. Recent research has led to improved understanding of impact fragmentation of polymetallic nodules, but quantification of the degradation process still is an open question due to scarcity of breakage data. In this paper we present a detailed analysis of nodule strengths and stresses occurring during impact and we propose an impact fragmentation model based on limited breakage data. The model is compared with the experiments and we comment on application of this model in engineering practice.