Physiologically relevant in vitro intestinal models are essential for studying key physiological processes, including barrier function, drug screening and gut-microbiota interactions. However, conventional 2D culture systems often fail to recapitulate structural and functional complexity. Here, we aimed to validate a 3D bioelectronic transmembrane platform, previously used for monitoring human intestinal epithelium and vascular endothelium, for modeling the rat small intestinal barrier in vitro. The device integrates a poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) scaffold supporting co-cultures of rat intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6) and rat fibroblasts (208F), enabling real-time monitoring of barrier formation through electrical measurements using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Barrier formation was monitored over 21 days and exhibited a time-dependent increase in barrier resistance. The 3D platform was compared with traditional 2D insert-based cultures and ex vivo rat tissue using an Ethylene Glycol Tetraacetic Acid (EGTA)-induced calcium switch assay to evaluate barrier disruption and recovery. EGTA treatment and removal induced reversible barrier disruption in the 3D in vitro and ex vivo models, whereas 2D in vitro cultures showed limited recovery. These findings demonstrate that the 3D platform more faithfully recapitulates native tissue architecture and function, closely paralleling ex vivo responses. Our study highlights the importance of validating advanced 3D in vitro models and establishes this bioelectronic platform as a robust tool for drug screening, barrier studies, and preclinical gastrointestinal research.

Electrically active hydrogels are attracting significant interest as biohybrid materials for electrical interfacing with biological tissues. Here, we report the development of electrically active hydrogels, specifically engineered for in vitro neural cell cultures. The hydrogels’ matrix comprises a viscoelastic alginate primary network, interpenetrated by a secondary network formed by the neural cell-adhesive protein, laminin. Conducting poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) particles are embedded throughout the hydrogel matrix, serving as the electrically active filler phase. Oscillatory rheology confirmed the viscoelastic nature of the composite hydrogels, with storage and loss moduli in the range of 1–10 kPa, suitable for neural tissue interfacing. The hydrogels exhibited high optical transparency across the visible spectrum. At a wavelength of 500 nm, transmission exceeded 45% for 400 µm thick hydrogels and was further enhanced to over 60% by reducing the hydrogel thickness to 150 µm. We established a reproducible protocol for electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry measurements, demonstrating that the incorporation of PEDOT:PSS significantly enhanced both conductivity and charge storage capacitance of hydrogel films. The alginate–laminin–PEDOT:PSS hydrogels demonstrated excellent operational stability, maintaining consistent electrochemical performance over 80 charging/discharging cycles and remaining structurally and functionally stable under cell culture conditions for over four weeks. Cortical neuron cultures derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells prove the stability and cytocompatibility of our proposed hydrogels for over 28 days in culture. Collectively, these results highlight the potential of electrically active hydrogels loaded with PEDOT:PSS as soft, bioelectronic interfaces for neural engineering applications.

We report a series of novel polymeric mixed ionic-electronic conductors based upon the incorporation of fused thieno[3,2-b]thiophene and bithiophene with isomeric sidechains. The enhanced rigidity in the polymer backbone facilitated the formation of stabilized bipolarons, while the reorganized ethylene glycol side chains not only maintained the polymer's hydrophilicity but also unexpectedly enhanced the crystallinity of the polymer film. This design strategy led to the development of 4gTT-2gT, a high-performance and stable organic mixed ionic-electronic conductor. The polymer exhibited a maximum µC* of 729 F V⁻¹ cm⁻¹ s⁻¹, one of the highest values among low-threshold voltage polythiophene derivatives, while demonstrating excellent operational stability, retaining 99% of its maximum current after 1-h device switching cycles and 94% after 9-h at lower bias. We implemented the material in OECT-based artificial synapses, which maintained functionality under a large temperature range (23–373 K). These combined properties establish 4gTT-2gT as a prime candidate for next-generation mixed conductor devices.

We present a series of newly developed donor-acceptor (D-A) polymers designed specifically for organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) synthesized by a straightforward route. All polymers exhibited accumulation mode behavior in OECT devices, and tuning of the donor comonomer resulted in a three-order-of-magnitude increase in transconductance. The best polymer gFBT-g2T, exhibited normalized peak transconductance (g_m,norm) of 298±10.4 S cm⁻¹ with a corresponding product of charge-carrier mobility and volumetric capacitance, μC*, of 847 F V⁻¹ cm⁻¹ s⁻¹ and a μ of 5.76 cm² V⁻¹ s⁻¹, amongst the highest reported to date. Furthermore, gFBT-g2T exhibited exceptional temperature stability, maintaining the outstanding electrochemical performance even after undergoing a standard (autoclave) high pressure steam sterilization procedure. Steam treatment was also found to promote film porosity, with the formation of circular 200–400 nm voids. These results demonstrate the potential of gFBT-g2T in p-type accumulation mode OECTs, and pave the way for the use in implantable bioelectronics for medical applications.

Organic mixed ionic-electronic conductors (OMIECs) are being explored in applications such as bioelectronics, biosensors, energy conversion and storage, and optoelectronics. OMIECs are largely composed of conjugated polymers that couple ionic and electronic transport in their structure as well as synthetic flexibility. Despite extensive research, previous studies have mainly focused on either enhancing ion conduction or enabling synthetic modification. This limited the number of OMIECs that excel in both domains. Here, a series of OMIECs based on functionalized poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT) copolymers that combine efficient ion/electron transport with the versatility of post-functionalization were developed. EDOT monomers bearing sulfonic (EDOTS) and carboxylic acid (EDOTCOOH) groups were electrochemically copolymerized in different ratios on oxygen plasma-treated conductive substrates. The plasma treatment enabled the synthesis of copolymers containing high ratios of EDOTS (up to 68%), otherwise not possible with untreated substrates. This flexibility in synthesis resulted in the fabrication of copolymers with tunable properties in terms of conductivity (2-0.0019 S/cm) and ion/electron transport, for example, as revealed by their volumetric capacitances (122-11 F/cm³). The importance of the organic nature of the OMIECs that are amenable to synthetic modification was also demonstrated. EDOTCOOH was successfully post-functionalized without influencing the ionic and electronic transport of the copolymers. This opens a new way to tailor the properties of the OMIECs to specific applications, especially in the field of bioelectronics.

Organic mixed ionic-electronic conductors (OMIECs) have emerged as promising materials for biological sensing, owing to their electrochemical activity, stability in an aqueous environment, and biocompatibility. Yet, OMIEC-based sensors rely predominantly on the use of composite matrices to enable stimuli-responsive functionality, which can exhibit issues with intercomponent interfacing. In this study, an approach is presented for non-enzymatic glucose detection by harnessing a newly synthesized functionalized monomer, EDOT-PBA. This monomer integrates electrically conducting and receptor moieties within a single organic component, obviating the need for complex composite preparation. By engineering the conditions for electrodeposition, two distinct polymer film architectures are developed: pristine PEDOT-PBA and molecularly imprinted PEDOT-PBA. Both architectures demonstrated proficient glucose binding and signal transduction capabilities. Notably, the molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) architecture demonstrated faster stabilization upon glucose uptake while it also enabled a lower limit of detection, lower standard deviation, and a broader linear range in the sensor output signal compared to its non-imprinted counterpart. This material design not only provides a robust and efficient platform for glucose detection but also offers a blueprint for developing selective sensors for a diverse array of target molecules, by tuning the receptor units correspondingly.