The influence of in-situ stresses on flow processes in fractured rock is investigated using a novel modelling approach. The combined finite-discrete element method (FEMDEM) is used to model the deformation of a fractured rock mass. The fracture wall displacements and aperture changes are modelled in response to uniaxial and biaxial stress states. The resultant changes in flow properties of the rock mass are investigated using the Complex Systems Modelling Platform (CSMP++). CSMP++ is used to model single-phase flow through fractures with variable aperture and a permeable rock matrix. The study is based on a geological outcrop mapping of a low density fracture pattern that includes the realism of intersections, bends and segmented features. By applying far-field (boundary) stresses to a square region, geologically important phenomena are modelled including fracture-dependent stress heterogeneity, the re-activation of pre-existing fractures (i.e. opening, closing and shearing), the propagation of new fractures and the development of fault zones. Flow anisotropy is investigated under various applied stresses and matrix permeabilities. In-situ stress conditions that encourage a closing of fractures together with a more pervasive matrix-dominated flow are identified. These are compared with conditions supporting more localised flow where fractures are prone to dilatational shearing and can be more easily exploited by fluids. The natural fracture geometries modelled in this work are not perfectly straight, promoting fracture segments that dilate as they shear. We have demonstrated the introduction of several realistic processes that have an influence on natural systems: fractures can propagate with wing cracks; there is the potential for new fractures to connect with existing fractures, thus increasing the connectivity and flow; blocks can rotate when bounded by fractures, bent fractures lead to locally different aperture development; highly heterogeneous stress distributions emerge naturally. Results presented in this work provide a mechanically rigorous demonstration that a change in the stress state can cause reactivation of pre-existing fractures and channelling of flow in critically stressed fractures.@en

We have been able to solve a reservoir simulation problem which was previously thought of as intractable: We simulated multiphase displacement, including viscous, capillary, and gravitational forces, for highly resolved and geologically realistic models of naturally fractured reservoirs (NFR) at the sector, i.e. kilometre, scale with very reasonable runtime. This has been possible because we used massive parallelisation and hierarchical solvers in conjunction with a new discrete fracture and matrix modelling (DFM) technique that is based on mixed-dimensional unstructured hybrid-element discretisations. High-resolution DFM simulations are important to resolve the non-linear coupling of small scale capillary - viscous and large scale gravitational - viscous processes adequately for sector scale NFR. Cross-scale process coupling in NFR controls oil recovery and NFR often exhibit power-law fracture length distributions, i.e. they do not possess an REV, and highly permeable fractures can extend over the full hydrocarbon column height. As a consequence, emergent displacement patterns have been observed which are difficult to quantify using traditional means of upscaling. However, such patterns could now be used as benchmarks to reach a better consensus on the correctness of promising new upscaling techniques. The parallel DFM technologies presented here allow us to to obtain these results much more efficiently and hence explore the parameter space in greater detail. We observed a linear scaling behaviour for up to 64 processes and a significant decrease in runtime when applying our parallel DFM approach to three highly refined NFR simulations. These contain thousands of fractures, up to 5 million elements, and have local grid-refinements below 1 m for model dimensions between I and 10 kilometres. We achieved this excellent speedup because we reduced inter-processor communication by minimising the overlap between individual domains and decreased idle time of individual processors by distributing the number of unknowns equally among the processors.@en

Realistic simulation of structurally complex reservoirs (SCR) is challenging in at least three ways: (1) geological structures must be represented and discretized accurately on vastly different length scales; (2) extreme ranges and discontinuous variations of material properties have to be associated with the discretized structures and accounted for in the computations; and (3) episodic, highly transient and often localized events such as well shut-in have to be resolved adequately within the overall production history, necessitating a highly adaptive resolution of time. To facilitate numerical experiments that elucidate the emergent properties, typical states and state transitions of SCRs, an application programmer interface (API) called complex systems modelling platform (CSMP ++) has been engineered in ANSI/ISO C ++. It implements a geometry and process-based SCR decomposition in space and time, and uses an algebraic multigrid solver (SAMG) for the spatio-temporal integration of the governing partial differential equations. This paper describes a new SCR simulation workflow including a two-phase fluid flow model that is compared with ECLIPSE in a single-fracture flow simulation. Geologically realistic application examples are presented for incompressible 2-phase flow, compressible 3-phase flow, and pressure-diffusion in a sector-scale model of a structurally complex reservoir.@en

Water flooding of fractured reservoirs is risky because water breakthrough can occur early, leading to a prohibitively high water cut. In mixed or oil-wet carbonates, capillary drive is negligible or absent. For this scenario, we investigate fluid-pressure-driven displacement of oil by water in two-phase flow numerical models based on naturally fractured limestone beds mapped along the British Channel coast. These reservoir analogs are represented by unstructured finite-element grids with discrete representations of intersecting fractures. We solve the governing equations for slightly compressible two-phase flow with our original control-volume finite-element method. This permits the direct examination of displacement patterns in fractures and rock matrix. We find that the irreducible saturation in the fractured carbonate is much higher than the value prescribed to the rock matrix. The shape of water invasion fronts is highly sensitive to the viscosity ratio of oil and water. When tho Brooks-Corey relative permeability model is applied to the rock matrix at a viscosity ratio of 1, the total mobility, λt, is low at intermediate saturations. This stabilizes displacement fronts where a girdle of reduced λ t develops, but this effect disappears as the viscosity ratio increases. For an idealized model with a water-wet matrix, we have also evaluated the effect of countercurrent capillary-pressure-driven flow across fracture-matrix interfaces. The rate of this countercurrent imbibition scales with the specific fracture surface area and decays exponentially as intermediate saturation zones develop adjacent to the fractures. The resulting reduced λt feeds back into the fluid-pressure-driven displacement process. Copyright@en