Automated driving research over the past decades has mostly focused on highway environments. Recent technological developments have drawn researchers and manufacturers to look ahead at introducing automated driving in cities. The current position paper examines this challenge from the viewpoint of scientific experts. Sixteen Human Factors researchers were interviewed about their personal perspectives on automated vehicles (AVs) and the interaction with VRUs in the future urban environment. Aspects such as smart infrastructure, external human-machine interfaces (eHMIs), and the potential of augmented reality (AR) were addressed during the interviews. The interviews showed that the researchers believed that fully autonomous vehicles will not be introduced in the coming decades and that intermediate levels of automation, specific AV services, or shared control will be used instead. The researchers foresaw a large role of smart infrastructure and expressed a need for AV-VRU segregation, but were concerned about corresponding costs and maintenance requirements. The majority indicated that eHMIs will enhance future AV-VRU interaction, but they noted that implicit communication will remain dominant and advised against text-based and instructive eHMIs. AR was commended for its potential in assisting VRUs, but given the technological challenges, its use, for the time being, was believed to be limited to scientific experiments. The present expert perspectives may be instrumental to various stakeholders and researchers concerned with the relationship between VRUs and AVs in future urban traffic.Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions; Innovative Training Networks (ITN); SHAPE-IT; Grant number 860410Publication date: 4 January 2021DOI: 10.1016/j.trip.2020.100293@en

Automated driving systems are increasingly prevalent on public roads, but there is currently little knowledge on the level of workload and stress of drivers operating an automated vehicle in a real environment. The present study aimed to measure driver workload and stress during partially automated driving in real traffic. We recorded heart rate, heart rate variability, respiratory rate, and subjective responses of nine test drivers in the Tesla Model S with Autopilot. The participants, who were experienced with driver assistance systems but naïve to the Tesla, drove a 32 min motorway route back and forth while following a lead car in regular traffic. In one of the two drives, participants performed a heads-up detection task of bridges they went underneath. Averaged across the two drives, the participants’ mean self-reported overall workload score on the NASA Task Load Index was 19%. Moreover, the participants showed a reduction in heart rate and self-reported workload over time, suggesting that the participants became accustomed to the experiment and technology. The mean hit (i.e., pressing the button near a bridge) rate in the detection task was 88%. In conclusion, driving with the Tesla Autopilot on a motorway involved a low level of workload that decreased with time on task.@en

This paper assessed four types of human–machine interfaces (HMIs), classified according to the stages of automation proposed by Parasuraman et al. [“A model for types and levels of human interaction with automation,” IEEE Trans. Syst. Man, Cybern. A, Syst. Humans, vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 286–297, May 2000]. We hypothesized that drivers would implement decisions (lane changing or braking) faster and more correctly when receiving support at a higher automation stage during transitions from conditionally automated driving to manual driving. In total, 25 participants with a mean age of 25.7 years (range 19–36 years) drove four trials in a driving simulator, experiencing four HMIs having the following different stages of automation: baseline (information acquisition—low), sphere (information acquisition—high), carpet (information analysis), and arrow (decision selection), presented as visual overlays on the surroundings. The HMIs provided information during two scenarios, namely a lane change and a braking scenario. Results showed that the HMIs did not significantly affect the drivers’ initial reaction to the take-over request. Improvements were found, however, in the decision-making process: When drivers experienced the carpet or arrow interface, an improvement in correct decisions (i.e., to brake or change lane) occurred. It is concluded that visual HMIs can assist drivers in making a correct braking or lane change maneuver in a take-over scenario. Future research could be directed toward misuse, disuse, errors of omission, and errors of commission.@en

Automatically driving platoons of vehicles are a likely candidate for solving many existing issues of road safety and congestion. However, the psychological effects of such technology are yet to be understood. Therefore, by means of a driving simulator experiment, we aimed to assess the psychological effects of driving in a highly automated platoon. The results showed that the type of task had no substantial effect on heart rate and self-reported stress, fatigue, and workload. However, time-on-task substantially reduced participants’ heart rate. @en

Previous research shows that drivers of automated vehicles are likely to engage in visually demanding tasks, causing impaired situation awareness. How mental task demands affect situation awareness is less clear. In a driving simulator experiment, 33 participants completed three 40-min runs in an automated platoon, each run with a different level of mental task demands. Results showed that high task demands (i.e., performing a 2-back task, a working memory task in which participants had to recall a letter, presented two letters ago) induced high self-reported mental demands (71% on the NASA Task Load Index), while participants reported low levels of self-reported task engagement (measured with the Dundee Stress State Questionnaire) in all three task conditions in comparison to the pre-task measurement. Participants’ situation awareness, as measured using a think-out-loud protocol, was affected by mental task demands, with participants being more involved with the mental task itself (i.e., to remember letters) and less likely to comment on situational features (e.g., car, looking, overtaking) when task demands increased. Furthermore, our results shed light on temporal effects, with heart rate decreasing and self-constructed mental models of automation growing in complexity, with run number. It is concluded that mental task demands reduce situation awareness, and that not only type-of-task, but also time-on-task, should be considered in Human Factors research of automated driving.@en

Automated driving can fundamentally change road transportation and improve quality of life. However, at present, the role of humans in automated vehicles (AVs) is not clearly established. Interviews were conducted in April and May 2015 with 12 expert researchers in the field of human factors (HFs) of automated driving to identify commonalities and distinctive perspectives regarding HF challenges in the development of AVs. The experts indicated that an AV up to SAE Level 4 should inform its driver about the AV's capabilities and operational status, and ensure safety while changing between automated and manual modes. HF research should particularly address interactions between AVs, human drivers and vulnerable road users. Additionally, driver-training programmes may have to be modified to ensure that humans are capable of using AVs. Finally, a reflection on the interviews is provided, showing discordance between the interviewees’ statements – which appear to be in line with a long history of HFs research – and the rapid development of automation technology. We expect our perspective to be instrumental for stakeholders involved in AV development and instructive to other parties.@en

Driving simulators have been used since the beginning of the 1930s to assist researchers in assessing driver behaviour without putting the driver in harm’s way. The current manuscript describes the implementation of a toolbox for automated driving research on the widely used STISIM platform. The toolbox presented in this manuscript allows researchers to conduct flexible research into automated driving, enabling independent use of longitudinal control, and a combination of longitudinal and lateral control, and is available as an open source download through GitHub. The toolbox allows the driver to adjust parameters such as set speed (in 5 kph increments) and time-headway (in steps of 1, 1.5, and 2 s) as well as automation mode dynamically, while logging additional variables that STISIM does not provide out-of-the-box (time-headway, time to collision). Moreover, the toolbox presented in this manuscript has gone through validation trials showing accurate speed, time-headway, and lane tracking, as well as transitions of control between manual and automated driving.@en

The topic of situation awareness has received continuing interest over the last decades. Freeze-probe methods, such as the Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT), are commonly employed for measuring situation awareness. The aim of this paper was to review validity issues of the SAGAT and examine whether eye movements are a promising alternative for measuring situation awareness. First, we outlined six problems of freeze-probe methods, such as the fact that freeze-probe methods rely on what the operator has been able to remember and then explicitly recall. We propose an operationalization of situation awareness based on the eye movements of the person in relation to their task environment to circumvent shortfalls of memory mediation and task interruption. Next, we analyzed experimental data in which participants (N = 86) were tasked to observe a display of six dials for about 10 min, and press the space bar if a dial pointer crossed a threshold value. Every 90 s, the screen was blanked and participants had to report the state of the dials on a paper sheet. We assessed correlations of participants’ task performance (% of threshold crossing detected) with visual sampling scores (% of dials glanced at during threshold crossings) and freeze-probe scores. Results showed that the visual-sampling score correlated with task performance at the threshold-crossing level (r = 0.31) and at the individual level (r = 0.78). Freeze-probe scores were low and showed weak associations with task performance. We conclude that the outlined limitations of the SAGAT impede measurement of situation awareness, which can be computed more effectively from eye movement measurements in relation to the state of the task environment. The present findings have practical value, as advances in eye-tracking cameras and ubiquitous computing lessen the need for interruptive tests such as SAGAT. Eye-based situation awareness is a predictor of performance, with the advantage that it is applicable through real-time feedback technologies.@en