Using X-ray computed microtomography, we have visualized and quantified the in situ structure of a trapped nonwetting phase (oil) in a highly heterogeneous carbonate rock after injecting a wetting phase (brine) at low and high capillary numbers. We imaged the process of capillary desaturation in 3D and demonstrated its impacts on the trapped nonwetting phase cluster size distribution. We have identified a previously unidentified pore-scale event during capillary desaturation. This pore-scale event, described as droplet fragmentation of the nonwetting phase, occurs in larger pores. It increases volumetric production of the nonwetting phase after capillary trapping and enlarges the fluid-fluid interface, which can enhance mass transfer between the phases. Droplet fragmentation therefore has implications for a range of multiphase flow processes in natural and engineered porous media with complex heterogeneous pore spaces.@en

A multiscale network integration approach introduced by Jiang et al. (2013) is used to generate a representative pore-network for a carbonate rock with a pore size distribution across several orders of magnitude. We predict the macroscopic flow parameters of the rock utilising (i) 3-D images captured by X-ray computed microtomography and (ii) pore-network flow simulations. To capture the multiscale pore size distribution of the rock, we imaged four different rock samples at different resolutions and integrated the data to produce a pore-network model that combines information at several length-scales that cannot be recovered from a single tomographic image. A workflow for selection of the number and length-scale of the required input networks for the network integration process, as well as fine tuning the model parameters is presented. Mercury injection capillary-pressure data were used to evaluate independently the multiscale networks. We explore single-scale, two-scale, and three-scale network models and discuss their representativeness by comparing simulated capillary-pressure versus saturation curves with laboratory measurements. We demonstrate that for carbonate rocks with wide pore size distributions, it may be required to integrate networks extracted from two or three discrete tomographic data sets in order to simulate macroscopic flow parameters.@en

We have developed a new finite element - finite volume based simulation approach to study flow and transport processes at sub-grid scales, i.e. at scales below the typical size of a reservoir simulation grid block, using real 3D geometries in carbonate reservoirs. We complement the simulations by high-resolution X-Ray CT experiments which provide us with the 3D structures, allow us to visualise flow processes at the core-scale in real time, and help us to compare the observed processes to numerical simulations to validate and verify the latter. We use this combined numerical-experimental approach to analyse the fundamental processes controlling fluid flow in carbonates at sub-grid scales. Results can be incorporated in existing reservoir simulation workflows to increase the confidence in reservoir performance forecasting. We show applications related to fractured carbonate reservoirs and enhanced oil recovery processes due to injection of low-salinity fluids and hot water.@en

The physics of multi-phase displacement processes in the individual pores of a connected pore-network of a rock ultimately controls how oil, gas and water move in reservoir rocks and how readily they can be produced. These pore scale processes, including piston-like displacement, snap off, film-flow and fluid redistribution have been studied traditionally in pore-network simulations as well as in 2D micro-model experiments. However, recent advances in X-ray computed micro-tomography (CT) techniques now enable us to visualize and monitor these processes in 3D during in-situ core flooding experiments at pore-scale resolution. This provides new information on the spatial and temporal evolution of oil and water phase clusters and films. In this paper, we present results of a suite of two-phase fluid displacement experiments performed on a dolomite core plug. The experiments consist of a series of fluid injections and in-situ CT scans of the core in certain time steps during the drainage and imbibition displacement processes. The fluid phases are brine and a mineral oil. A simple, low-cost and highly X-ray transparent design for core flooding cells is introduced. Our experiments and CT images allow us to visualize the 3D fluid structures of each phase during fluid displacements in carbonate rocks with excellent clarity. Piston-like displacement and snap off mechanisms have been captured clearly in 3D. In addition, the formation, collapse and reorganisation of brine films surrounding oil blobs in individual pores were clearly visualised. However, the formation of oil films, which could provide connectivity for the hydrocarbon phase at low saturations, could not be observed in these experiments. The observed displacement processes and the particular oil-water/rock configurations seen in the displacements suggest the rock is preferentially water wet.@en

The application of high resolution x-ray computed tomography in conjunction with x-ray transparent core holders and representative volumes of porous carbonate media enable exceptionally high quality imaging of fluid displacement processes. The experiments show that the rock is water wet. This in turn is in agreement with what was expected prior to running the experiments since the rock was a clean outcrop and has never been exposed to hydrocarbon phases. Moreover, major fluid displacement mechanisms being used in pore scale simulations including piston like displacement and snap off have been captured clearly. The experiments have characterized the transport features and the structure of residual oil present in a water wet system. Subsequent experiments will focus on wettability alteration to develop oil wet surfaces for direct comparison. The on-going phase of this study will focus on building multiple scale network models and using them to run fluid displacement simulations. These models will be validated against experimental data such as MICP and relative permeability measurements.@en