With the Paris climate accords signed in 2016, most countries have committed themselves to ambitious climate targets during the next decades. One of these targets is a dramatic increase in the overall energy portfolio's market share of renewable energies. This increase in renewable market share will, for a large part, consist of newly built offshore wind farms. In turn, this rise in offshore wind energy projects is expected to be especially dramatic in northern regions, where high and constant wind speeds prevail. However, as offshore wind farm projects move further north, additional challenges need to be faced. One of these is the technical challenge to design offshore wind farms for possible encounters with drifting sea ice. To tackle this challenge, a proper understanding of the mechanics associated with encounters of drifting sea ice with offshore wind turbines is essential. Such encounters are currently primarily understood phenomenologically, and the associated models simulating these encounters – or ice-structure interactions – therefore are phenomenological as well. Moreover, most ice-structure interaction models are fundamentally one-dimensional, whereas ice-structure interactions are generally not one-dimensional. This mismatch holds especially for ice-structure interactions with offshore wind turbines, where wind loads are generally misaligned with ice loads causing highly two-dimensional ice-structure interaction problems. Therefore, the first half of this work sets out to extend one of the industry-leading phenomenological one-dimensional models – the Hendrikse (2017) model – to a two-dimensional environment. The ultimately developed Zero-friction contact Area variation Model By Omnidirectional Numerical Ice (ZAMBONI) attempts to do so by introducing practical extensions rather than introducing new assumptions. Nevertheless, one extension does entail a shift from current one-dimensional ice-structure interaction models. Namely, the assumption that ice experiences neither friction at the ice-structure interface nor internal shear forces. Consequently, much of the correctness of this model hinges on this extension. To assert the correctness of ZAMBONI. A comprehensive verification campaign is performed as well as a simple order-of-magnitude validation campaign. Although both confirm the extensions' correctness, further validation is required, especially concerning the zero-friction principle. Upon developing and discussing this two-dimensional ice-structure interaction model, the second half of this work couples ZAMBONI to an offshore wind turbine model to gain further insight into ice-structure interactions. These dynamically coupled two-dimensional simulations serve two purposes. Firstly, to compare one- and two-dimensionally simulated load cases of aligned ice and wind. Secondly, to perform newly simulable load cases of misaligned ice and wind. Four primary findings are discussed. Firstly, as hypothesized, introducing a disturbing wind load lowers the ice-structure contact area, causing smaller loads and displacements due to ice loads. This effect is especially well observable for misaligned wind loads and low far-field ice velocities. Secondly, a new ice-structure interaction regime is observed where ice and structure synchronize in the structure's first bending mode. This synchronization occurs most dominantly for two-dimensional ice. Thirdly, frequency lock-in occurs solely in the second bending mode and is terminated at lower ice indentation speeds for two-dimensional than for one-dimensional ice. Finally, small ice-wind misalignments, which are most common, appear highly similar to load cases of fully aligned ice and wind.

With a growing global demand of clean renewable energy, offshore wind activities will extend to more harsh environments, including sub-arctic areas like the Baltic Sea. Sea ice can occur here which needs to be taken into consideration in the design of substructures, i.e. jacket substructures, of offshore wind turbines. Several ice mitigating measures exist for jacket substructures, of which one is disregarding braces crossing the waterline. In this way, ice cannot induce loads to the relatively slender braces in the jacket. However, disregarding these braces has disadvantages in terms of structural integrity in comparison to a jacket including these braces. In Part I of this thesis, two types of jackets, one without (Type 1) and one with (Type 2) waterline crossing braces, are implemented in a numerical model and subjected to ice loading in order to conclude whether the use of a Type 1 jacket design can be justified or whether a Type 2 jacket design is also suitable in sub-arctic areas. Since over the past years the modelling techniques regarding ice-structure interaction have been updated and improved significantly, assessing the loads at the jacket braces can be done more accurately, allowing to give a more thorough conclusion on whether to use braces crossing the waterline on jackets in sub-arctic areas. As a result, a design including these braces could become feasible, whereas in the past it would be disregarded. Two types of ice failure are considered in this research, being ice bending failure and ice crushing failure. First, a model is developed to quantify the ice actions occurring at a jacket substructure as function of the approach angle of the ice direction relative to the structure and as function of an introduced 'threshold angle'. It was found that ice failing in bending is equally significantly present as ice failing in crushing. Subsequently, numerical models are introduced that describe the failure behaviour of bending and crushing ice and the force that both ice failure types will induce to the structure. The structure is represented by a 5 [MW] offshore reference turbine supported by a jacket substructure. Using these models, dynamic simulations are performed in order to investigate the local susceptibility to ice induced vibrations (IIV), as well as assessing the Ultimate Limit State (ULS) load at the braces. As a result, local brace IIV regimes could be recognised, however sustained frequency lock-in could not be observed. Furthermore, it was found that a Type 2 jacket could be suitable to use in sub-arctic areas considering the ULS load effects due to ice loading, but care should be taken for the ULS brace load, as that is of great importance for the design. In Part II of this thesis, it is assessed whether coupled dynamic ice-structure interaction can be modelled using a dynamic substructuring modelling technique, also known as Craig-Bampton method, since it is industry practice to use such a method when jackets are involved. This method is based on a model order reduction of the full finite element model representing the structure, resulting in improved computational time and allowing assembly of multiple (reduced) substructures. The method is successfully implemented allowing to solve coupled ice-structure interaction problems and a framework to do so is provided. It is shown that excluding the loaded degrees of freedom (DoFs) in the jacket from the reduction leads to more accurate results and is considered convenient since few DoFs are loaded by ice, maintaining the effectiveness of the reduction method. As a result, IIV can be investigated using this reduction method, however challenges related to the accumulation of numerical accuracy errors arise with truncation of more higher frequency modes and require further development to be resolved.

Arctic and sub-arctic regions are more and more used to build offshore wind farms. There is a lack of model-scale tests where dynamic sturcutral properties were systematically varied to derive the influence of these properties on boundaries of the three crushing regimes. Those regimes are intermittent crushing, where both the ice load and displacement signal have a sawtooth pattern, frequency lock-in, with its characteristic sinusoidal displacement signal and continuous brittle crushing with smaller random ice loads and structural displacements compared to the two previously mentioned regimes. The first goal of this thesis is to test if an error in the dynamic structural properties (mass, stiffness and damping) has an effect on the transition velocities of the crushing regimes. Secondly, a parameter study has been done to derive trends in the transition velocities when changing dynamic structural properties. Ultimately, in literature proposed dimensionless numbers, which are particularly only taking linear elastic ice parameters into account, have been checked for rightness. To be able to achieve the above mentioned goals of the thesis, a model-scale test campaign has been performed at the Aalto Ice Tank as part of the SHIVER test campagin. 36 unique single degree of freedom configurations have been tested to derive trends in ice-structure interaction when changing dynamic structural parameters. The most notable element of this test campaign was the usage of a real-time hybrid test setup, which allowed the testing of multiple sets of structural parameters while only one physical structure was used. Those test signify that there is a relation between mass, stiffness, natural frequency and damping and transition velocities inbetween the three crushing regimes. When mass, stiffness and natural frequency increase, the boundaries of those regimes shift to lower velocities. An increase in damping caused the velocity of the boundary between frequency lock-in and continuous brittle crushing to go up, while the boundary between intermittent crushing and frequency lock-in was not influenced by the change in damping. Furthermore, from the tests it could be conlcuded that dimensionless numbers based on only linear elastic parameters are not correct and more parameters should be taken into account as well. The thesis is a steping stone into more research into the dependency of ice-induced vibrations on dynamic structural properties with different initial conditions or structural properties. Furthermore in future test campaigns other dimensionless groups could be proposed and validated.

To accommodate the growing demand for renewable energy, installation of new offshore wind energy capacity is increasing in many countries. New projects will be proposed for waters in which floating (sea) ice is a common occurrence in winter. Currently, projects remain limited to regions with mild ice conditions, such as the Southern Baltic Sea, but projects further north are expected. In preparatory work for this thesis, performed at Siemens Gamesa Renewable Energies, it was shown that (edgewise) blade loads increase significantly for Northern Baltic sites when compared to Southern Baltic sites due to ice induced vibrations. The phenomena of ice extrusion and rubble loads are expected to provide added damping to an ice-structure interaction system. This added damping may lead to less severe structural vibrations, and thus blade loads for an offshore wind turbine, than for a system with only intact ice crushing. VANILLA is the leading ice crushing model in the industry to evaluate the effects of ice induced vibrations for vertical offshore structures such as wind turbines, but the model currently does not (explicitly) consider ice extrusion and rubble loads. Therefore, the aim of this work is to investigate the phenomena of rubble and ice extrusion in crushing and propose a modelling approach. Following a literature study, a rubble model and an extrusion model are proposed as extensions of the VANILLA ice model. The rubble model shows to be consistent and compute plausible rubble loads for model and full scale, while the extrusion model only predicts reasonable extrusion loads at full scale. Forcing and dynamics found from using the Standard and Adjusted VANILLA model with simplified global bending mode shapes of the SG 14-222 DD offshore wind turbine were compared. Rubble loads were found to be small in magnitude and of negligible influence on the dynamics. The loads stemming from extrusion introduce additional damping to the system when the relative velocity between the structure and the ice increases, such that (i) the immediate load drop to zero after a failure event observed in Standard VANILLA is omitted, (ii) initiation ice drift velocities for IIV regimes become lower, (iii) dynamic amplitudes reduce, and (iv) a positive force-velocity gradient arises in the CBR regime.