Wind-generated waves strongly interact with sea ice and impact air-sea exchanges, operations at sea, and marine life. Unfortunately, the dissipation of wave energy is not well quantified and its possible effect on upper ocean mixing and ice drift is still mysterious. As the Arctic is opening up and wave energy increases, the limited amount of in situ observations is a clear limitation to our scientific understanding. Both radar and optical remote sensing has revealed the frequent presence of waves in ice, and could be used more systematically to investigate wave-ice interactions. Here we show that, in cloud-free conditions, Sentinel-2 images exhibit brightness modulations in ice-covered water, consistent with the presence of waves measured a few hours later by the ICESat-2 laser altimeter. We show that a full-focus SAR processing of Sentinel-3 radar altimeter data also reveals the presence and wavelengths of waves in sea ice, within minutes of Sentinel-2 imagery. The SWIM instrument on CFOSAT is another source of quantitative evidence for the direction and wavelengths of waves in ice, when ice conditions are spatially homogeneous. In the presence of sea ice, a quantitative wave height measurement method is not yet available for all-weather near-nadir radar instruments such as altimeters and SWIM. However, their systematic colocation with optical instruments on Sentinel-2 and ICESat-2, which are less frequently able to observe waves in sea ice, may provide the empirical transfer functions needed to interpret and calibrate the radar data, greatly expanding the available data on wave-ice interactions.

According to everyone's experience, predicting the weather reliably over more than 8d seems an impossible task for our best weather agencies. At the same time, politicians and citizens are asking scientists for climate projections several decades into the future to guide economic and environmental policies, especially regarding the maximum admissible emissions of CO2. To what extent is this request scientifically admissible? In this review we will investigate this question, focusing on the topic of predictions of transitions between metastable states of the atmospheric or oceanic circulations. Two relevant examples are the switching between zonal and blocked atmospheric circulation at mid-latitudes and the alternation of El Nino and La Nina phases in the Pacific Ocean. The main issue is whether present climate models, which necessarily have a finite resolution and a smaller number of degrees of freedom than the actual terrestrial system, are able to reproduce such spontaneous or forced transitions. To do so, we will draw an analogy between climate observations and results obtained in our group on a laboratory-scale, turbulent, von Karman flow in which spontaneous transitions between different states of the circulation take place. We will detail the analogy, investigate the nature of the transitions and the number of degrees of freedom that characterize the latter, and discuss the effect of reducing the number of degrees of freedom in such systems. We will also discuss the role of fluctuations and their origin and stress the importance of describing very small scales to capture fluctuations of correct intensity and scale.