Successful deployment of geological carbon storage (GCS) requires an extensive use of reservoir simulators for screening, ranking and optimization of storage sites. However, the time scales of GCS are such that no sufficient long-term data is available yet to validate the simulators against. As a consequence, there is currently no solid basis for assessing the quality with which the dynamics of large-scale GCS operations can be forecasted. To meet this knowledge gap, we have conducted a major GCS validation benchmark study. To achieve reasonable time scales, a laboratory-size geological storage formation was constructed (the “FluidFlower”), forming the basis for both the experimental and computational work. A validation experiment consisting of repeated GCS operations was conducted in the FluidFlower, providing what we define as the true physical dynamics for this system. Nine different research groups from around the world provided forecasts, both individually and collaboratively, based on a detailed physical and petrophysical characterization of the FluidFlower sands. The major contribution of this paper is a report and discussion of the results of the validation benchmark study, complemented by a description of the benchmarking process and the participating computational models. The forecasts from the participating groups are compared to each other and to the experimental data by means of various indicative qualitative and quantitative measures. By this, we provide a detailed assessment of the capabilities of reservoir simulators and their users to capture both the injection and post-injection dynamics of the GCS operations.

We present an efficient compositional framework for simulation of CO2 storage in saline aquifers with complex geological geometries during a lifelong injection and migration process. To improve the computation efficiency, the general framework considers the essential hydrodynamic physics, including hysteresis, dissolution and capillarity, by means of parameterized space. The parameterization method translates physical models into parameterized spaces during an offline stage before simulation starts. Among them, the hysteresis behavior of constitutive relations is captured by the surfaces created from bounding and scanning curves, on which relative permeability and capillarity pressure are determined directly with a pair of saturation and turning point values. The new development also allows for simulation of realistic reservoir models with complex geological features. The numerical framework is validated by comparing simulation results obtained from the Cartesian-box and the converted corner-point grids of the same geometry, and it is applied to a field-scale reservoir eventually. For the benchmark problem, the CO2 is injected into a layered formation. Key processes such as accumulation of CO2 under capillarity barriers, gas breakthrough and dissolution, are well captured and agree with the results reported in literature. The roles of various physical effects and their interactions in CO2 trapping are investigated in a realistic reservoir model using the corner-point grid. It is found that dissolution of CO2 in brine occurs when CO2 and brine are in contact. The effect of residual saturation and hysteresis behavior can be captured by the proposed scanning curve surface in a robust way. The existence of capillarity causes less sharp CO2-brine interfaces by enhancing the imbibition of the brine behind the CO2 plume, which also increases the residual trapping. Moreover, the time-dependent characteristics of the trapping amount reveals the different time scales on which various trapping mechanisms (dissolution and residual) operate and the interplay. The novelty of the development is that essential physics for CO2 trapping are considered by the means of parameterized space. As it is implemented on corner-point grid geometries, it casts a promising approach to predict the migration of CO2 plume, and to assess the amount of CO2 trapped by different trapping mechanisms in realistic field-scale reservoirs.

An efficient compositional framework is developed for simulation of CO ₂ storage in saline aquifers during a full-cycle injection, migration and post-migration processes. Essential trapping mechanisms, including structural, dissolution, and residual trapping, which operate at different time scales, are accurately captured in the presented unified framework. In particular, a parameterization method is proposed to efficiently describe the relevant physical processes. The proposed framework is validated by comparing the dynamics of gravity-induced convective transport with that reported in the literature. Results show good agreement for both the characteristics of descending fingers and the associated dissolution rate. The developed simulator is then applied to study the FluidFlower benchmark model. An experimental setup with heterogeneous geological layers is discretized into a two-dimensional computational domain where numerical simulation is performed. Impacts of hysteresis and the diffusion of CO ₂ in liquid phase on the migration and trapping of CO ₂ plume are investigated. Inclusion of the hysteresis effect does not affect plume migration in this benchmark model, whereas diffusion plays an important role in promoting convective mixing. This work casts a promising approach to predict the migration of the CO ₂ plume, and to assess the amount of trapping from different mechanisms for long-term CO ₂ storage.