Pausing by bacterial RNA polymerase (RNAp) is vital in the recruitment of regulatory factors, RNA folding, and coupled translation. While backtracking and intra-structural isomerization have been proposed to trigger pausing, our mechanistic understanding of backtrack-associated pauses and catalytic recovery remains incomplete. Using high-throughput magnetic tweezers, we examine the Escherichia coli RNAp transcription dynamics over a wide range of forces and NTP concentrations. Dwell-time analysis and stochastic modeling identify, in addition to a short-lived elemental pause, two distinct long-lived backtrack pause states differing in recovery rates. We identify two stochastic sources of transcription heterogeneity: alterations in short-pause frequency that underlies elongation-rate switching, and variations in RNA cleavage rates in long-lived backtrack states. Together with effects of force and Gre factors, we demonstrate that recovery from deep backtracks is governed by intrinsic RNA cleavage rather than diffusional Brownian dynamics. We introduce a consensus mechanistic model that unifies our findings with prior models.@en

Due to their specificity, efficiency, and ease of programming, CRISPR-associated nucleases are popular tools for genome editing. On the genomic scale, these nucleases still show considerable off-target activity though, posing a serious obstacle to the development of therapies. Off targeting is often minimized by choosing especially high-specificity guide sequences, based on algorithms that codify empirically determined off-targeting rules. A lack of mechanistic understanding of these rules has so far necessitated their ad hoc implementation, likely contributing to the limited precision of present algorithms. To understand the targeting rules, we kinetically model the physics of guide-target hybrid formation. Using only four parameters, our model elucidates the kinetic origin of the experimentally observed off-targeting rules, thereby rationalizing the results from both binding and cleavage assays. We favorably compare our model to published data from CRISPR-Cas9, CRISPR-Cpf1, CRISPR-Cascade, as well as the human Argonaute 2 system.@en

The S. pyogenes (Sp) Cas9 endonuclease is an important gene-editing tool. SpCas9 is directed to target sites based on complementarity to a complexed single-guide RNA (sgRNA). However, SpCas9-sgRNA also binds and cleaves genomic off-targets with only partial complementarity. To date, we lack the ability to predict cleavage and binding activity quantitatively, and rely on binary classification schemes to identify strong off-targets. We report a quantitative kinetic model that captures the SpCas9-mediated strand-replacement reaction in free-energy terms. The model predicts binding and cleavage activity as a function of time, target, and experimental conditions. Trained and validated on high-throughput bulk-biochemical data, our model predicts the intermediate R-loop state recently observed in single-molecule experiments, as well as the associated conversion rates. Finally, we show that our quantitative activity predictor can be reduced to a binary off-target classifier that outperforms the established state-of-the-art. Our approach is extensible, and can characterize any CRISPR-Cas nuclease – benchmarking natural and future high-fidelity variants against SpCas9; elucidating determinants of CRISPR fidelity; and revealing pathways to increased specificity and efficiency in engineered systems.@en

About three quarters of our DNA is wrapped into nucleosomes: DNA spools with a protein core. It is well known that the affinity of a given DNA stretch to be incorporated into a nucleosome depends on the geometry and elasticity of the basepair sequence involved, causing the positioning of nucleosomes. Here we show that DNA elasticity can have a much deeper effect on nucleosomes than just their positioning: it affects their "identities". Employing a recently developed computational algorithm, the mutation Monte Carlo method, we design nucleosomes with surprising physical characteristics. Unlike any other nucleosomes studied so far, these nucleosomes are short-lived when put under mechanical tension whereas other physical properties are largely unaffected. This suggests that the nucleosome, the most abundant DNA-protein complex in our cells, might more properly be considered a class of complexes with a wide array of physical properties, and raises the possibility that evolution has shaped various nucleosome species according to their genomic context.@en