R.J. van Leijden
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8 records found
1
Journal article
(2026)
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Jithu Paul, Karel N. van Dalen, Andrei B. Fărăgău, Rens J. van Leijden, Biagio Carboni, Andrei V. Metrikine
This paper investigates the dynamic stability of an electromagnetically suspended vehicle, encountered in Hyperloop and Maglev systems, subject to purely sinusoidal base excitation caused by surface irregularities or vibration of the support induced by external noise. The narrow airgap between the vehicle and the support makes the system sensitive to the motion of the support, as small amplitudes of the latter create significant excitation. The vehicle is modelled as a three-degree-of-freedom model where the vehicle is suspended via two identical electromagnetic actuators from rigid supports that oscillate. The governing equations are derived using force and torque balances, incorporating nonlinear electromagnetic forces, and Kirchhoff’s law for the electromagnets with PD control strategy on the airgap. The equations of motion are linearized around the steady state induced by the surface oscillation, yielding a system with time-periodic coefficients. We analytically explore both simple and combination parametric resonances using an extended Hill’s method, and Floquet theory is used for numerical validation. The stability boundaries are obtained as ellipses in the PD control parameter space, and the influence of system parameters on these boundaries is characterized. For a mean phase shift between the base excitations, the ratio of the sizes of the two simple-parametric resonance ellipses is three to one, whereas for the combination parametric resonance ellipses, the ratio is fourteen to one. One of the ellipses associated with the combination parametric resonance is the largest in that situation. Moreover, we found that in all cases, the relative sizes of the ellipses are independent of the excitation frequency, when normalized by the local width of the stable domain. Additionally, the impact of using hybrid magnets in the supports—combining electromagnets with permanent magnets—on the parametric resonances is analysed, showing that they are equivalent to those of the electromagnet-only case; the ellipses only shift in accordance with an overall widening of the stable domain. Results reveal critical conditions under which each type of resonance dominates, offering key insights for safe design and operation of magnetically suspended vehicles.
...
This paper investigates the dynamic stability of an electromagnetically suspended vehicle, encountered in Hyperloop and Maglev systems, subject to purely sinusoidal base excitation caused by surface irregularities or vibration of the support induced by external noise. The narrow airgap between the vehicle and the support makes the system sensitive to the motion of the support, as small amplitudes of the latter create significant excitation. The vehicle is modelled as a three-degree-of-freedom model where the vehicle is suspended via two identical electromagnetic actuators from rigid supports that oscillate. The governing equations are derived using force and torque balances, incorporating nonlinear electromagnetic forces, and Kirchhoff’s law for the electromagnets with PD control strategy on the airgap. The equations of motion are linearized around the steady state induced by the surface oscillation, yielding a system with time-periodic coefficients. We analytically explore both simple and combination parametric resonances using an extended Hill’s method, and Floquet theory is used for numerical validation. The stability boundaries are obtained as ellipses in the PD control parameter space, and the influence of system parameters on these boundaries is characterized. For a mean phase shift between the base excitations, the ratio of the sizes of the two simple-parametric resonance ellipses is three to one, whereas for the combination parametric resonance ellipses, the ratio is fourteen to one. One of the ellipses associated with the combination parametric resonance is the largest in that situation. Moreover, we found that in all cases, the relative sizes of the ellipses are independent of the excitation frequency, when normalized by the local width of the stable domain. Additionally, the impact of using hybrid magnets in the supports—combining electromagnets with permanent magnets—on the parametric resonances is analysed, showing that they are equivalent to those of the electromagnet-only case; the ellipses only shift in accordance with an overall widening of the stable domain. Results reveal critical conditions under which each type of resonance dominates, offering key insights for safe design and operation of magnetically suspended vehicles.
Journal article
(2026)
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Rens J. van Leijden, Karel N. van Dalen, Andrei B. Fărăgău, Jithu Paul, Andrei V. Metrikine
This study addresses the dynamic stability of a moving mass suspended electromagnetically from a flexible beam that is supported periodically by discrete elastic springs. The stability is generally determined by the interaction of the wave-induced and electromagnetic instability mechanisms. Both are related to a potentially destabilizing force: the controlled electromagnetic force and the reaction force of the guideway (beam-foundation system). The former is destabilizing if the control is inappropriate, and the latter when sufficiently energetic anomalous Doppler waves are excited in the guideway that feedback energy into the vehicle vibration. Using a generalization of Hill’s method, the stability boundary is determined in the plane of electromagnetic-control parameters. The obtained boundary is roughly triangular, like for the equivalent non-periodic system. The left, straight boundary marks the emergence of a divergence instability. The right boundary generally marks the emergence of an oscillatory (flutter-type) instability, but specific, elliptical indentations are related to parametric resonances. The divergence instability is always electromagnetics induced, but the oscillatory instability and parametric resonances can be either wave or electromagnetics induced, although the latter are often electromagnetics induced. Wave-induced instability takes place mostly for large speeds and only for small values of the control parameters. The stability boundary locally bends back there, reducing the size of the stable zone considerably. Next to the T and 2T parametric-resonance indentations, the right boundary has a significant amorphous indentation compared to that of the non-periodic system. Furthermore, the 2T parametric resonance ellipse is very significant in size when the inhomogeneity of the periodic guideway is relatively strong. Interestingly, the amorphous indentation is related to the occurrence of an evanescent wave in the periodic guideway, but parametric resonance appears to be not uniquely related to a single wave type. Although the current study is fundamental in nature, the findings do pave the way towards the design of safe and cost-effective Maglev and Hyperloop infrastructure as well as of electromagnetic-suspension controllers. We emphasize that the wave-induced instability mechanism, and more generally speaking the influence of the periodic guideway, is also relevant in the context of other (than the simple PD) control strategies as well as for different Maglev and Hyperloop suspension/levitation systems such as the electrodynamic, the hybrid and the superconducting magnet suspensions.
...
This study addresses the dynamic stability of a moving mass suspended electromagnetically from a flexible beam that is supported periodically by discrete elastic springs. The stability is generally determined by the interaction of the wave-induced and electromagnetic instability mechanisms. Both are related to a potentially destabilizing force: the controlled electromagnetic force and the reaction force of the guideway (beam-foundation system). The former is destabilizing if the control is inappropriate, and the latter when sufficiently energetic anomalous Doppler waves are excited in the guideway that feedback energy into the vehicle vibration. Using a generalization of Hill’s method, the stability boundary is determined in the plane of electromagnetic-control parameters. The obtained boundary is roughly triangular, like for the equivalent non-periodic system. The left, straight boundary marks the emergence of a divergence instability. The right boundary generally marks the emergence of an oscillatory (flutter-type) instability, but specific, elliptical indentations are related to parametric resonances. The divergence instability is always electromagnetics induced, but the oscillatory instability and parametric resonances can be either wave or electromagnetics induced, although the latter are often electromagnetics induced. Wave-induced instability takes place mostly for large speeds and only for small values of the control parameters. The stability boundary locally bends back there, reducing the size of the stable zone considerably. Next to the T and 2T parametric-resonance indentations, the right boundary has a significant amorphous indentation compared to that of the non-periodic system. Furthermore, the 2T parametric resonance ellipse is very significant in size when the inhomogeneity of the periodic guideway is relatively strong. Interestingly, the amorphous indentation is related to the occurrence of an evanescent wave in the periodic guideway, but parametric resonance appears to be not uniquely related to a single wave type. Although the current study is fundamental in nature, the findings do pave the way towards the design of safe and cost-effective Maglev and Hyperloop infrastructure as well as of electromagnetic-suspension controllers. We emphasize that the wave-induced instability mechanism, and more generally speaking the influence of the periodic guideway, is also relevant in the context of other (than the simple PD) control strategies as well as for different Maglev and Hyperloop suspension/levitation systems such as the electrodynamic, the hybrid and the superconducting magnet suspensions.
Controlling instability of high-speed magnetically suspended vehicles
The interaction of the electromagnetic and wave-induced instability mechanisms
Journal article
(2025)
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Andrei B. Fărăgău, Andrei V. Metrikine, Jithu Paul, Rens van Leijden, Karel N. van Dalen
Maglev and the newer Hyperloop technologies are advanced transportation systems that eliminate wheel–rail friction using electromagnetic suspension/levitation. The electromagnetic suspension is inherently unstable and requires a control strategy for safe operation, which has been previously studied in the context of Maglev. However, the interaction between electromagnetic instability and another instability mechanism, known as wave-induced instability, occurring at high vehicle velocities, has not been explored. This interaction between two distinct instability mechanisms is the focus of this study. From a practical perspective, this study examines the stability of magnetically suspended vehicles (e.g., Maglev or Hyperloop) in relation to vehicle velocity and control gains. To account for this, this study properly includes the infinite guideway, thus allowing vehicle velocity to influence system stability. The results show that at sub-critical velocities, the guideway's reaction force helps suppress perturbations and stabilize the system, with instability driven solely by improper electromagnetic control. However, at super-critical velocities, wave-induced instability drastically reduces the stable parameter space. This study further proposes a methodology to distinguish the contribution of each instability mechanism to the overall system stability, which is important for efficient mitigation measures. The findings reveal that beyond a certain super-critical velocity, wave-induced instability dominates much of the control-gain plane, with the control strategy effective in only limited regions. In conclusion, the study recommends revising control design strategies, as solely focusing on maximizing energy dissipation through control can trigger wave-induced instability. A more effective approach balances energy dissipation with avoiding the activation of wave-induced instability by steering clear of problematic vibration frequencies. These insights provide guidance for improving control strategies.
...
Maglev and the newer Hyperloop technologies are advanced transportation systems that eliminate wheel–rail friction using electromagnetic suspension/levitation. The electromagnetic suspension is inherently unstable and requires a control strategy for safe operation, which has been previously studied in the context of Maglev. However, the interaction between electromagnetic instability and another instability mechanism, known as wave-induced instability, occurring at high vehicle velocities, has not been explored. This interaction between two distinct instability mechanisms is the focus of this study. From a practical perspective, this study examines the stability of magnetically suspended vehicles (e.g., Maglev or Hyperloop) in relation to vehicle velocity and control gains. To account for this, this study properly includes the infinite guideway, thus allowing vehicle velocity to influence system stability. The results show that at sub-critical velocities, the guideway's reaction force helps suppress perturbations and stabilize the system, with instability driven solely by improper electromagnetic control. However, at super-critical velocities, wave-induced instability drastically reduces the stable parameter space. This study further proposes a methodology to distinguish the contribution of each instability mechanism to the overall system stability, which is important for efficient mitigation measures. The findings reveal that beyond a certain super-critical velocity, wave-induced instability dominates much of the control-gain plane, with the control strategy effective in only limited regions. In conclusion, the study recommends revising control design strategies, as solely focusing on maximizing energy dissipation through control can trigger wave-induced instability. A more effective approach balances energy dissipation with avoiding the activation of wave-induced instability by steering clear of problematic vibration frequencies. These insights provide guidance for improving control strategies.
Journal article
(2025)
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Jithu Paul, Karel N. van Dalen, Andrei B. Fărăgău, Rens J. van Leijden, Mouad Ouggaâli, Andrei V. Metrikine
In this paper, we study the stability of a simple model of a hyperloop vehicle resulting from the interaction between electromagnetic and aeroelastic forces for both constant and periodically varying coefficients (i.e., parametric excitation). For the constant coefficients, through linear stability analysis, we analytically identify three distinct regions for the physically significant equilibrium point. Further inspection reveals that the system exhibits limit-cycle vibrations in one of these regions. Using the harmonic balance method, we determine the properties of the limit cycle, thereby unraveling the frequency and amplitude that characterize the periodic oscillations of the system's variables. For the varying coefficients case, the stability is studied using Floquet analysis and Hill's determinant method. The part of the stability boundary related to parametric resonance has an elliptical shape, while the remaining part remains unchanged. One of the major findings is that a linear parametric force can suppress or amplify the parametric resonance induced by another parametric force depending on the amplitude of the former. In the context of the hyperloop system, this means that parametric resonance caused by base excitation—in other words by the linearized parametric electromagnetic force—can be suppressed by modulating the coefficient of the aeroelastic force in the same frequency. The effectiveness is also highly dependent on the phase difference between the modulation and the base excitation. The origin of the suppression is attributed to the stabilizing character of the parametric aeroelastic force as revealed through energy analysis. We provide analytical expressions for the stability boundaries and for the stability's dependence on the phase shift of the modulation. Finally, we emphasize that suppressing parametric resonance through an added, linear state-dependent force with the coefficient having the same period as the original force can be achieved in other physical systems too.
...
In this paper, we study the stability of a simple model of a hyperloop vehicle resulting from the interaction between electromagnetic and aeroelastic forces for both constant and periodically varying coefficients (i.e., parametric excitation). For the constant coefficients, through linear stability analysis, we analytically identify three distinct regions for the physically significant equilibrium point. Further inspection reveals that the system exhibits limit-cycle vibrations in one of these regions. Using the harmonic balance method, we determine the properties of the limit cycle, thereby unraveling the frequency and amplitude that characterize the periodic oscillations of the system's variables. For the varying coefficients case, the stability is studied using Floquet analysis and Hill's determinant method. The part of the stability boundary related to parametric resonance has an elliptical shape, while the remaining part remains unchanged. One of the major findings is that a linear parametric force can suppress or amplify the parametric resonance induced by another parametric force depending on the amplitude of the former. In the context of the hyperloop system, this means that parametric resonance caused by base excitation—in other words by the linearized parametric electromagnetic force—can be suppressed by modulating the coefficient of the aeroelastic force in the same frequency. The effectiveness is also highly dependent on the phase difference between the modulation and the base excitation. The origin of the suppression is attributed to the stabilizing character of the parametric aeroelastic force as revealed through energy analysis. We provide analytical expressions for the stability boundaries and for the stability's dependence on the phase shift of the modulation. Finally, we emphasize that suppressing parametric resonance through an added, linear state-dependent force with the coefficient having the same period as the original force can be achieved in other physical systems too.
Abstract
(2024)
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Andrei B. Fărăgău, Andrei Metrikine, Jithu Paul, Rens van Leijden, Karel van Dalen
The Hyperloop is an innovative transportation system that is currently under development. It minimizes air resistance by enclosing the vehicle in a de-pressurized tube and eliminates wheel-rail contact friction through the use of an electromagnetic suspension/levitation, similar to Maglev trains. This design can potentially achieve much higher velocities compared to traditional railways, positioning the Hyperloop as an environmentally friendly alternative to air transportation.
A potential challenge for Hyperloop is ensuring the dynamic stability at large velocities, where multiple instability sources can be present. An apparent source is the electro-magnetic suspension (adopted by some designs) making a control strategy mandatory to ensure stability even at quasi-static velocities. A less obvious instability mechanism is that the vibration of a vehicle on an elastic guideway can become unstable when surpassing a critical velocity.
The authors have previously investigated the interplay between the electro-magnetic and wave-induced instability mechanisms and showed that the stability space changes significantly above a certain velocity. In other words, the control strategy can ensure the overall system stability only for a very limited range of its gains. The cause for this drastic change was attributed to the wave-induced instability mechanism. Metrikin demonstrated that this instability arises with the radiation of anomalous Doppler waves, which introduce more energy to the vehicle's vibration than normal Doppler waves radiate away from the vehicle. The current study demonstrates that the change of stability domain is indeed caused by the anomalous Doppler waves. While identifying unstable velocity regimes is practical for Hyperloop design, gaining insight into the contribution of individual instability mechanisms can be crucial for efficient mitigation.
...
A potential challenge for Hyperloop is ensuring the dynamic stability at large velocities, where multiple instability sources can be present. An apparent source is the electro-magnetic suspension (adopted by some designs) making a control strategy mandatory to ensure stability even at quasi-static velocities. A less obvious instability mechanism is that the vibration of a vehicle on an elastic guideway can become unstable when surpassing a critical velocity.
The authors have previously investigated the interplay between the electro-magnetic and wave-induced instability mechanisms and showed that the stability space changes significantly above a certain velocity. In other words, the control strategy can ensure the overall system stability only for a very limited range of its gains. The cause for this drastic change was attributed to the wave-induced instability mechanism. Metrikin demonstrated that this instability arises with the radiation of anomalous Doppler waves, which introduce more energy to the vehicle's vibration than normal Doppler waves radiate away from the vehicle. The current study demonstrates that the change of stability domain is indeed caused by the anomalous Doppler waves. While identifying unstable velocity regimes is practical for Hyperloop design, gaining insight into the contribution of individual instability mechanisms can be crucial for efficient mitigation.
...
The Hyperloop is an innovative transportation system that is currently under development. It minimizes air resistance by enclosing the vehicle in a de-pressurized tube and eliminates wheel-rail contact friction through the use of an electromagnetic suspension/levitation, similar to Maglev trains. This design can potentially achieve much higher velocities compared to traditional railways, positioning the Hyperloop as an environmentally friendly alternative to air transportation.
A potential challenge for Hyperloop is ensuring the dynamic stability at large velocities, where multiple instability sources can be present. An apparent source is the electro-magnetic suspension (adopted by some designs) making a control strategy mandatory to ensure stability even at quasi-static velocities. A less obvious instability mechanism is that the vibration of a vehicle on an elastic guideway can become unstable when surpassing a critical velocity.
The authors have previously investigated the interplay between the electro-magnetic and wave-induced instability mechanisms and showed that the stability space changes significantly above a certain velocity. In other words, the control strategy can ensure the overall system stability only for a very limited range of its gains. The cause for this drastic change was attributed to the wave-induced instability mechanism. Metrikin demonstrated that this instability arises with the radiation of anomalous Doppler waves, which introduce more energy to the vehicle's vibration than normal Doppler waves radiate away from the vehicle. The current study demonstrates that the change of stability domain is indeed caused by the anomalous Doppler waves. While identifying unstable velocity regimes is practical for Hyperloop design, gaining insight into the contribution of individual instability mechanisms can be crucial for efficient mitigation.
A potential challenge for Hyperloop is ensuring the dynamic stability at large velocities, where multiple instability sources can be present. An apparent source is the electro-magnetic suspension (adopted by some designs) making a control strategy mandatory to ensure stability even at quasi-static velocities. A less obvious instability mechanism is that the vibration of a vehicle on an elastic guideway can become unstable when surpassing a critical velocity.
The authors have previously investigated the interplay between the electro-magnetic and wave-induced instability mechanisms and showed that the stability space changes significantly above a certain velocity. In other words, the control strategy can ensure the overall system stability only for a very limited range of its gains. The cause for this drastic change was attributed to the wave-induced instability mechanism. Metrikin demonstrated that this instability arises with the radiation of anomalous Doppler waves, which introduce more energy to the vehicle's vibration than normal Doppler waves radiate away from the vehicle. The current study demonstrates that the change of stability domain is indeed caused by the anomalous Doppler waves. While identifying unstable velocity regimes is practical for Hyperloop design, gaining insight into the contribution of individual instability mechanisms can be crucial for efficient mitigation.
Conference paper
(2024)
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J. Paul, Andrei B. Faragau, R.J. van Leijden, A. Metrikine, K.N. van Dalen
In this paper, we delve into the dynamics of an electromagnetically suspended mass from a rigid support. The study employs a 1.5-degrees-of-freedom system which serves as a simplified model for a Hyperloop vehicle traveling in a tube. Through linear stability analysis, we analytically uncover three distinct regions for the physically significant equilibrium point. Further inspection reveals that the system exhibits limit-cycle vibrations in one of these regions. Employing the harmonic balance method, we determine the properties of the limit cycle, thus unravelling the frequency and amplitude characterizing the periodic oscillations of system’s variables. We also present preliminary findings regarding the influence of the steady aeroelastic force on the stability of the system.
...
In this paper, we delve into the dynamics of an electromagnetically suspended mass from a rigid support. The study employs a 1.5-degrees-of-freedom system which serves as a simplified model for a Hyperloop vehicle traveling in a tube. Through linear stability analysis, we analytically uncover three distinct regions for the physically significant equilibrium point. Further inspection reveals that the system exhibits limit-cycle vibrations in one of these regions. Employing the harmonic balance method, we determine the properties of the limit cycle, thus unravelling the frequency and amplitude characterizing the periodic oscillations of system’s variables. We also present preliminary findings regarding the influence of the steady aeroelastic force on the stability of the system.
Abstract
(2024)
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Andrei B. Fărăgău, Andrei Metrikine, Jithu Paul, Jithu van Leijden, Karel van Dalen
The Hyperloop, a developing transportation system, reduces air resistance by housing the vehicle within a depressurized tube and eliminates contact friction through an electro-magnetic suspension/levitation system. Maintaining system stability poses a challenge due to the exceptionally high target velocities. The interplay between electro-magnetic and wave-induced instability has been previously studied by the authors, showing that stability domains drastically change above a certain vehicle velocity. The current study demonstrates that the anomalous Doppler waves (i.e., wave-induced instability) are causing this drastic change. This investigation offers physical insight into the mechanisms that can cause instability in the Hyperloop system.
...
The Hyperloop, a developing transportation system, reduces air resistance by housing the vehicle within a depressurized tube and eliminates contact friction through an electro-magnetic suspension/levitation system. Maintaining system stability poses a challenge due to the exceptionally high target velocities. The interplay between electro-magnetic and wave-induced instability has been previously studied by the authors, showing that stability domains drastically change above a certain vehicle velocity. The current study demonstrates that the anomalous Doppler waves (i.e., wave-induced instability) are causing this drastic change. This investigation offers physical insight into the mechanisms that can cause instability in the Hyperloop system.
The Hyperloop, a developing transportation system, reduces air resistance by housing the vehicle within a depressurized tube and eliminates contact friction by using an electro-magnetic suspension/levitation system. Maintaining system stability poses a challenge due to the exceptionally high target velocities. Consequently, it is important to know apriori the velocity regimes in which the system can be unstable. The authors have recently investigated this aspect by, unlike previous studies, properly accounting for the frequency and velocity dependent reaction force provided by the infinite guideway. Furthermore, that study focused on the interplay between two fundamentally different instability sources, namely (i) the electro-magnetic suspension, and (ii) wave-induced instability, showing that stability domains drastically change above a certain vehicle velocity. The current study presents a methodology to distinguish the contribution of each instability mechanism to the overall system stability, and demonstrates that the wave-induced instability mechanism is causing the drastic stability change at large vehicle velocities. This investigation offers physical insight into the mechanisms that can cause instability in the Maglev/Hyperloop systems, and can help engineers that develop this novel transportation system to avoid excessive vibrations and, in extreme cases, derailment.
...
The Hyperloop, a developing transportation system, reduces air resistance by housing the vehicle within a depressurized tube and eliminates contact friction by using an electro-magnetic suspension/levitation system. Maintaining system stability poses a challenge due to the exceptionally high target velocities. Consequently, it is important to know apriori the velocity regimes in which the system can be unstable. The authors have recently investigated this aspect by, unlike previous studies, properly accounting for the frequency and velocity dependent reaction force provided by the infinite guideway. Furthermore, that study focused on the interplay between two fundamentally different instability sources, namely (i) the electro-magnetic suspension, and (ii) wave-induced instability, showing that stability domains drastically change above a certain vehicle velocity. The current study presents a methodology to distinguish the contribution of each instability mechanism to the overall system stability, and demonstrates that the wave-induced instability mechanism is causing the drastic stability change at large vehicle velocities. This investigation offers physical insight into the mechanisms that can cause instability in the Maglev/Hyperloop systems, and can help engineers that develop this novel transportation system to avoid excessive vibrations and, in extreme cases, derailment.