In this paper counterfactual thinking is addressed based on literature mainly from Neuroscience and Psychology. A detailed literature review was conducted in identifying processes, neural correlates and theories related to counterfactual thinking from different disciplines. A familiar scenario with respect to counterfactual thinking was identified. Based on the literature, an adaptive self-modeling network model was designed. This model captures the complex process of counterfactual thinking and the learning and control involved.@en

In this chapter counterfactual thinking is addressed based on literature mainly from Neuroscience and Psychology. A detailed literature review was conducted in identifying processes, neural correlates and theories related to counterfactual thinking from different disciplines. A familiar scenario with respect to counterfactual thinking was identified. Based on the literature, an adaptive self-modeling network model was designed. This model captures the complex process of counterfactual thinking, the mental models that are involved, and the learning and control.@en

Mental models play a crucial role in individual and organizational learning. The adaptive mental processes involved in the development of mental models are addressed here by integrating psychological and neurological theories on mental models and the learning involved. An adaptive network model has been designed for these processes and used for simulations addressing a case study of learning to drive a car. The developed model may be valuable for different ends, like in improving individual and organizational learning, in designing virtual pedagogical agents, enhancing driver safety, and self-car-driving systems.@en

Learning knowledge or skills usually is considered to be based on the formation of an adequate internal mental model as a specific type of mental network. The learning process for such a mental model conceptualised as a mental network, is a form of (first-order) mental network adaptation. Such learning often integrates learning by observation and learning by instruction. For an effective learning process, an appropriate timing of these different elements is crucial. By controlling the timing of them, the mental network adaptation process becomes adaptive itself, which is called second-order mental network adaptation. In this chapter, a second-order adaptive mental network model is proposed addressing this. The first-order adaptation process models the learning process of mental models and the second-order adaptation process controls the timing of the elements of this learning process. It is illustrated by a case study for the learner-controlled mental model learning in the context of driving a car. Here the learner is in control of the integration of learning by observation and learning by instruction.@en

This chapter contributes an analysis of how in mental and social processes, humans often apply specific mental models and learn and adapt them in a controlled manner. It is discussed how controlled adaptation relates to the Plasticity Versus Stability Conundrum in neuroscience. From the analysis an informal three-level cognitive architecture for controlled adaptation was obtained. It is discussed here from a self-modeling network viewpoint how this cognitive architecture can be modeled as a self-modeling network. Making use of the specific network characteristics offered by the self-modeling network structure format, a large number of options for different types of adaptation of mental models and different types of control over adaptation of mental models were obtained. Many of these options were illustrated by a several realistic examples that were formalized by self-modeling networks. Other options that were distinguished from the analysis here, are offered as interesting options for future research.@en

Within their mental and social processes, humans often learn, adapt and apply specific mental models of processes in the world or other persons, as a kind of blueprints. In this paper, it is discussed how analysis of this provides useful inspiration for the development of new computational approaches from a Machine Learning and Network-Oriented Modeling perspective. Three main elements are: applying the mental model by internal simulation, developing and revising a mental model by some form of adaptation, and exerting control over this adaptation in a context-sensitive manner. This concept of controlled adaptation relates to the Plasticity Versus Stability Conundrum from neuroscience. The presented analysis has led to a three-level computational architecture for controlled adaptation. It is discussed and illustrated by examples of applications how this three-level computational architecture can be specified based on a self-modeling network and used to model controlled learning and adaptation processes based on mental models in a context-sensitive manner.@en

Learning knowledge or skills usually is considered to be based on the formation of an adequate internal mental model as a specific type of mental network. The learning process for such a mental model conceptualised as a mental network, is a form of (first-order) mental network adaptation. Such learning often integrates learning by observation and learning by instruction. For an effective learning process, an appropriate timing of these different elements is crucial. By controlling the timing of them, the mental network adaptation process becomes adaptive itself, which is called second-order mental network adaptation. In this paper, a second-order adaptive mental network model is proposed addressing this. The first-order adaptation process models the learning process of mental models and the second-order adaptation process controls the timing of the elements of this learning process. It is illustrated by a case study for the learner-controlled mental model learning in the context of driving a car. Here the learner is in control of the integration of learning by observation and learning by instruction.@en

This paper contributes an analysis of how in mental and social processes, humans often apply specific mental models and learn and adapt them in a controlled manner. It is discussed how controlled adaptation relates to the Plasticity Versus Stability Conundrum in neuroscience. From the analysis an informal three-level cognitive architecture for controlled adaptation was obtained. It is discussed here from a self-modeling network viewpoint how this cognitive architecture can be modeled as a self-modeling network. Making use of the specific network characteristics offered by the self-modeling network structure format, a large number of options for different types of adaptation of mental models and different types of control over adaptation of mental models were obtained. Many of these options were illustrated by a several realistic examples that were formalized by self-modeling networks. Other options that were distinguished from the analysis here, are offered as interesting options for future research.@en