Defining and Evaluating the Comfort Braking Curve in European Train Control System for Operational Efficiency

Abstract

Hosting providers are essential for maintaining the security and reliability of digital services, but they continue to face challenges from malicious activities in their network, such as malware and phishing. The European Union’s Digital Services Act (DSA) was introduced to improve accountability and create a safer online environment, but its effectiveness in helping hosting providers mitigate abuse remains unclear. This study investigates whether compliance with the DSA has contributed to reducing malicious activity among Dutch hosting providers and examines the broader relationship between compliance levels and cybersecurity outcomes. This study evaluates the effectiveness of anti-abuse measures employed by Dutch hosting providers, with a focus on the role of the DSA in helping with compliance and reducing malicious activity. Specifically, it examines whether adherence to the DSA improves the ability of hosting providers to mitigate cyber threats, particularly in reducing the prevalence of malicious IP addresses. Using passive DNS data, the research examines changes in the prevalence of malicious IP addresses before and after the implementation of the DSA. Compliance levels were also analyzed to understand their correlation with malware percentages. The study employed statistical methods, including Interrupted Time Series (ITS) analysis and regression models, to evaluate trends and relationships between compliance and malicious activity. The findings indicate no statistically significant reduction in malicious IP activity following the implementation of the DSA, suggesting that compliance alone does not automatically translate into improved security outcomes. While the DSA strengthens transparency and procedural accountability, hosting providers continue to face operational challenges in implementing effective anti-abuse measures. Factors such as cybercriminal adaptation, enforcement inconsistencies, and resource constraints likely influence the weak correlation between compliance and actual abuse reduction. These results shows the need for a more holistic approach to cybersecurity regulation, combining technical advancements, industry collaboration, and proactive security enforcement alongside regulatory compliance. Evaluating the effectiveness of frameworks like the DSA is essential to ensuring that they not only establish compliance standards but also provide hosting providers with practical tools to enh The Dutch government aims to fully implement ERTMS (European Railway Traffic Management System) by 2050, with ETCS (European Train Control System) playing a crucial role. Currently, ETCS covers only 10% of the Dutch rail network, providing limited insight into train driver braking behavior. Differences between the current train control system (ATB) and ETCS systems cause deviations from the recommended speed curve, leading to inefficiencies in track utilization, increased wear and tear, and unrealistic capacity expectations. This research focuses on defining, visualizing and evaluating a balance between the ETCS requirements and the train driver behavior requirements, the comfort braking curve, within ETCS Level 2 parameters. As ETCS replaces ATB, it aims to enhance rail safety, capacity, and interoperability. However, train drivers currently operate under their own comfort preferences, which affects system performance. The goal is defining comfort and designing an optimal braking curve, compatible in the existing ETCS system based on the degree of comfort. And Investigate practical implications of the comfort braking curve, aligning train driver behavior, in relation to operational efficiency. The central research question is: What are the implications of implementing the comfort braking curve on capacity, wear and tear, safety, and driver experience? A literature review provided foundational knowledge on comfortable braking and driver behavior. The comfort braking curve is a smooth deceleration with minimal jerk ensuring smooth speed transitions, well-controlled braking and a balance between comfort, control, and safety. The comfort braking curve defines braking deceleration between 0.5 m/s2 - 0.6 m/s2 and a maximum jerk of 1.0 m/s3 to ensure a smooth ride. Practical observations show, for instance, that train drivers tend to coast 10% of their speed, avoid accelerating toward braking, and maintain margins to anticipate unforeseen situations. Expert interviews and analyses of train driver behavior in practice-, offered practical insights. This results in 6 factors and 6 scenarios that the train drivers described as discomfort. The comfort braking curve incorporates the anticipation strategies resulting from the 6 factors and 6 scenarios, so the comfort braking curve remains practical to be applied within operational constraints. Based on these insights and what the literature and practice say based on comfort, critical design parameters have been established. To do this, we examined how current braking curves are constructed and which parameters are important when designing the comfort braking curve, such as braking forces, velocities , and target distances. Simulations in FRISO validated the comfort braking curve under realistic conditions, analyzing its impact in terms of reliability, availability, maintenance, safety, health and environment. Results show the comfort braking curve fits within the timetable while maintaining robustness. Reduced energy consumption and power demands minimize equipment stress, leading to lower maintenance needs. Furthermore, the constant deceleration pattern improves driver experience by aligning with their natural behavior and enhancing predictability.ance online security and mitigate digital threats effectively.