The role of water in residential developments
A.E.T. Meijne (TU Delft - Architecture and the Built Environment)
K.B.J. Van den Berghe – Mentor (TU Delft - Architecture and the Built Environment)
V.H. Gruis – Mentor (TU Delft - Architecture and the Built Environment)
More Info
expand_more
Other than for strictly personal use, it is not permitted to download, forward or distribute the text or part of it, without the consent of the author(s) and/or copyright holder(s), unless the work is under an open content license such as Creative Commons.
Abstract
Water is a critical but undervalued resource, with buildings and construction accounting for approximately 15% of global freshwater withdrawals (Montano-Owen & Brady, 2023). While Circular Economy (CE) strategies in construction increasingly target carbon reduction and material reuse, water use, both operational and virtual, remains insufficiently addressed (Rashid et al., 2025).This research examines the role of water in high-rise residential development by analysing the quantity, timing, and impact of water during material production (virtual water) and building operation, and investigates the drivers, barriers, and practical opportunities for implementing circular water-saving solutions.
A combination of quantitative and qualitative strategies was used for the research. Virtual water impacts were calculated using an Economic Input Output Life Cycle Assessment (EIOLCA) and Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs), organised through the Quantity Time Impact (Q T I) framework and applied to a Dutch high rise case study. Water use and implementation dynamics were examined through semi structured interviews.
The findings show that water use in high-rise development is both large and largely invisible. Embodied water in construction materials, particularly concrete and aluminium, equals roughly 29 years of operational water use, meaning nearly one-third of the total lifecycle water demand is already fixed before the first resident moves in. Material choices and procurement decisions made early in the design phase therefore determine this footprint in ways that cannot be corrected later. Operational water use accounts for the remaining two-thirds over a 75-year lifespan and offers the largest direct reduction potential: 30-50% through efficient fixtures alone, and up to 70% when combining greywater and rainwater reuse.
Implementation of these solutions is shaped by five interconnected factors: low awareness and knowledge of water footprints, municipal requirements (increasingly acting as a driver, as in The Hague), financial feasibility constraints (greywater reuse systems carry payback periods of up to 60 years under current water prices), regulatory barriers limiting indoor use of rainwater and treated greywater, and execution and maintenance complexity in high-rise settings. Despite these barriers, developing contractors hold a central coordinating position that allows them to influence procurement, early design, and stakeholder collaboration. By applying a small-wins approach, preparing buildings for future greywater reuse, integrating water-impact optimization in early design phases, or initiating supplier conversations, contractors can trigger broader organisational change and lower barriers for more comprehensive circular water strategies.
This research advances the Circular Water Economy (CWE) by linking lifecycle water assessments with organisational decision-making. It provides developers and contractors with actionable guidance to reduce water footprints beyond regulatory compliance and demonstrates that integrating circular water principles into project execution is both feasible and increasingly necessary under growing water scarcity and tightening regulations.