Coastal dunes form valuable ecosystems that provide flood protection, drinking water, and high biodiversity worldwide. Although their functioning hinges on habitat zonation along >km-scale sea-to-land gradients, infrastructure development progressively squeezes natural dune ecosystems into a narrow strip. Yet it remains unknown how much undisturbed coastal width is required to support the diverse suites of habitats and species assemblages found in natural dune systems. Here, we investigate plant and habitat diversity in 614 plots along 47 sea-to-land transects in the southeastern USA and the Netherlands. We discover a linear relation between habitat diversity and species richness, indicating that species-rich dunes require diverse habitat assemblages. Moreover, we find that both plant and habitat diversity nonlinearly depend on coastal width, with cumulative plant diversity reaching ∼75% of its potential at 800 and 1,800 m widths in the southeastern USA and the Netherlands, respectively. Alarmingly, dune areas are narrower than these widths along 79% and 66% of southeastern USA and Dutch coastlines, highlighting that lack of space compromises biodiversity along the majority of coastlines. Finally, analyses of management measures along the transects reveal that strategic interventions can, at least in part, mitigate biodiversity losses from infrastructure encroachment. As coastal squeeze-i.e., combined losses from infrastructure and sea level rise-is a global phenomenon, our results suggest that it threatens biodiversity in dune ecosystems worldwide. We argue that the establishment or expansion of nature reserves may be vital for conserving wide dune systems and that targeted management measures can help maintain biodiversity where squeeze cannot be alleviated.

Increased climate impacts threaten coastal functions globally, highlighting the need for multifunctional coastal climate adaptation. Sand nourishment can adapt sandy coasts to sea level rise, mitigate erosion, increase flood safety, enhance ecological habitats and expand recreational space. Therefore, sand nourishment is increasingly regarded as a promising nature-based strategy for coastal climate adaptation. However, despite this growing recognition, the assessment of how sand nourishment design impacts multifunctional adaptation remains limited. In this perspective article, we argue for three key lessons for researchers to optimise assessing multifunctional coastal climate adaptation by sand nourishment. We conducted stakeholder workshops to scope and inform our perspective, performed semi-structured literature reviews to concretise and validate this for international applications, built a qualitative model to visualise our interdisciplinary overview of how nourishments impact coastal multifunctionality, reflected on this in expert workshops, and identified implications for researchers. In this manner, we assessed the effects of nourishment design on coastal morphology, ecology, socio-economics and ecosystem services in realising the key policy goals of flood safety, nature and recreation. We found that sand nourishment design can result in conflicts between policy goals, generate ambiguous outcomes and lead to system-wide feedback effects. As such, we identified three key lessons: (1) conflicts between policy goals require informing political decision-making on prioritisation between coastal functions, (2) concreteness is needed on otherwise ambiguous functions, and (3) ongoing, multidisciplinary system-wide monitoring is essential. We thus call for a holistic approach to sand nourishment design and encourage researchers from diverse expertise and localities to expand on and adapt our findings to optimise informing sand nourishment design for delivering multifunctional coastal climate adaptation worldwide.

Coastal ecosystems provide vital services, but human disturbance causes massive losses. Remaining ecosystems are squeezed between rising seas and human infrastructure development. While shoreline retreat is intensively studied, coastal congestion through infrastructure remains unquantified. Here we analyse 235,469 transects worldwide to show that infrastructure occurs at a median distance of 392 meter from sandy shorelines. Moreover, we find that 33% of sandy shores harbour less than 100 m of infrastructure-free space, and that 23–30% of this space may be lost by 2100 due to rising sea levels. Further analyses show that population density and gross domestic product explain 35–39% of observed squeeze variation, emphasizing the intensifying pressure imposed as countries develop and populations grow. Encouragingly, we find that nature reserves relieve squeezing by 4–7 times. Yet, at present only 16% of world’s sandy shores have a protected status. We therefore advocate the incorporation of nature protection into spatial planning policies.