Surface mining operations can have a significant visual impact on the surrounding landscape and communities. There have been numerous cases of local populations pushing back against the development of mining operations near their communities. This study aims to determine whether it is possible to assess the visual impact of surface mining operations before the development has started. With this assessment it would become possible to make informed decisions as to pitshell development and selection in terms of visual impact. A tool was developed to determine whether it is possible to make this assessment. This tool must be able to be used to determine the visual impact of two or more scenarios in the pre-feasibility phase of development to assist in the decision of which scenario will be developed further in the feasibility phase. In this context, the visual impact is defined as the perceived change in the landscape as a result of mine development on local communities around the surface mine development. The scenarios are defined as the option of pitshells designed during the pre-feasibility phase of mine development. The tool makes a distinction between the physical changes in the landscape caused by the surface mining operation and how this physical change is perceived by anyone viewing the operation. The tool is GIS based and utilizes the free open-source software QGIS to calculate the physical change in the landscape. The tool calculates the vertical and horizontal visibility angle. The visibility angle describes the extent that the change in the landscape takes up in the view of an observer. In addition to that, the tool calculates the contrast between the changed colour in the landscape and its surroundings, which describes how much the change stands out. It requires two sets of data to work: a digital elevation model of the prospected surface mine pitshell and the surrounding landscape and a RGB satellite image of the surrounding area. The DEM provides elevation data for every square metre of the landscape to the GIS, while the satellite image provides RGB colour data. All other data can be generated from the previously mentioned data features. The tool is tested using a case study, in which several distinct pitshell scenarios are compared against one another on their visual impact. The case study is based on the extension of a limestone quarry in Belgium, which aims to secure reserve for future operations. The area of interest is surrounded by several small to medium size villages, which would be affected visually by the extension. Therefore, a comparison should be made regarding the visual impact of the several pitshell scenarios. The results showed it is possible to determine the visual impact of surface mining operations before the development has started. On this basis, it is possible to compare different pitshell scenarios and determine which scenario would be least impactful in terms of visual impact on the local community and surrounding landscape. The reliability of the tool can only be assessed theoretically, however a high level of accuracy is achieved by adhering to guiding principles which are set out in this thesis.

This report contains the results of the two thesis studies that finalise a combined MSc--programs of Reservoir Geology and Science Communication. The first part of the report comprises the multi-scale data (kilometers to meters scale) analysis of a) the large--scale architecture of the subsurface Daly Waters Arch which was obtained from seismic data interpretation; and b) fracture pattern characterisation by outcrop measurements and drone imagery in the Tomkinson Province. Both the Daly Waters Arch and the Tomkinson Province are located in the largely undeformed Palaeo-- to Meso--Proterozoic Greater McArthur Basin in the Northern Territory, Australia. In July 2019, a geological fieldwork was conducted in the Tomkinson Province to collect the fracture data with the drone. In this research, the Daly Waters Arch and the Tomkinson Province have been geologically linked based on seismic and fracture data. By discussing analog cases of far-field deformation, these results have been placed in a larger context of large--scale basin deformation. The second part of the report focuses on the Netherlands, where ambitious goals have been set for the implementation of geothermal energy in the energy transition. During the gas production in Groningen, a negative social perspective towards mining operations, in general, was developed. For the implementation of geothermal energy, an approach for the communication of technical uncertainties between the initiators and the local public of a geothermal project is designed in this study. Technical uncertainties that are present in geothermal energy implementation in the Netherlands have been identified during semi-structured expert-interviews with different stakeholders in the spectrum of geothermal energy. The approach addresses guidelines for the communication of the context, the goal, the technical uncertainties present in the geothermal project, the main communicating actors, their reference frames, and the situation in which the communication process takes place.

During this thesis, 2D modelling using the MOVE software suite is performed on a fold and thrust belt in the French Prealps. The area of interest is called the Couspeau area and is 72 km2. In this area, Vocontian basin sediments deposited during the Jurassic and Cretaceous can be found. The area contains well exposed fold and thrust structures. The oldest structures begin in the West, while the younger ones can be found in the East. All thrusts strike approximately N-S. These thrusts were assumed to be formed by the second Alpine orogeny. A structural map of the area was created in QGIS version 3.12.0 using geologic maps from the BRGM and using fieldwork data from Applied Earth Sciences students collected during the AESB2430 course at TU Delft. Subsequently, four E-W orientated cross sections of the area were constructed. These sections were restored using MOVE to verify if the interpretations were geologically feasible. 2D forward modelling was then applied to discover possible types of structural mechanisms which were active in this area. Possible mechanisms include fault-bend folding and regular folding. Fault propagation folding was assumed to be a suitable mechanism, but didn’t produce satisfactory forward models. Strain circles were added during forward modelling to analyse what kind of deformation is caused by different thrusting mechanisms. The restored sections were also used to calculate the total amount of shortening in the area, and how much of this shortening was caused by folding or faulting. The total amount of shortening was 24%, from which 38% was caused by faulting and 62% by folding.

The decrease in the production of hydrocarbons in combination with a growing urgency to reduce carbon emissions drives a rapid study and application of geothermal energy in the Netherlands. The produced heat from the low enthalpy geothermal energy can be used for heating up the buildings and greenhouses. A doublet system is used in the geothermal scheme, which consists of one production well and one injection well. The reinjection is done to maintain the reservoir pressure and reduce pressure decline due to production, earthquake and subsidence prevention, and environmental safety. Thus, it is crucial to model the aquifer distributions appropriately as the injection and production well should be placed at the communicated sand bodies. In this study, the architecture of the Alblasserdam Member in the Drechtsteden, West Netherlands Basin is modelled. An investigation of the paleo flow and the distribution of sand prone succession within the Alblasserdam Member is done by integrating seismic interpretation, reservoir sedimentology, and petrophysical evaluation. The data used consist of seismic data, well log dataset and core data from the acquired hydrocarbon exploration data. The Alblasserdam Member was deposited during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous when the high tectonic activities occurred in the West Netherlands Basin and followed by series of inversion impulses made this member bounded by various members at the bottom and the top. The seismic response of the Alblasserdam Member shows a high thickness and depth variations. The sediments of the Alblasserdam Member are highly accumulated in the central part of the study area, bounded by two major faults striking SE-NW. Several sections of well correlation are made based on cycles of changing accommodation to sediment supply ratio (A/S cycles). The correlation is supported with seismic interpretation, allow to map the distribution of sand-rich interval of the Alblasserdam Member in the Drechtsteden. Two potential aquifer intervals are found. A southwestward shifting of the main fluvial system is observed from the thickness trend of the shallower aquifer intervals. A petrophysical evaluation is made to analyze the properties of the potential aquifer that encompass net to gross thickness (N/G), average porosity, and average permeability. The deeper potential aquifer has a higher clean sand N/G, but lower average permeability, that might be caused by the compaction, and mineral precipitation after the inversion period, especially in the highly inverted area. In the end, a recommendation to place a pair of production and injection wells are proposed based on the high accumulation of sand-rich intervals, sufficient depth to produce heat >70oC and absences of the fault. The wells are placed toward SE-NW trend which is parallel to the distribution of the main fluvial distribution and the orientation of the faults, with production well placed at the deeper level.

More than 30% of the world’s hydrocarbon reserves are located in carbonate reservoirs, and this percentage is likely to increase, as a result of discoveries of new giant oil fields in carbonate rocks, generically named “Pre-salt layers”. However, there are still some problems in understanding karst systems that still unresolved. The karst caves are one of the suitable analogs for karstic reservoirs that also spread all over the world. In this study, the mobile LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data is used to characterize the geometries and to analyze the stability of tunnels under several depths from 5 caves in Bahia, Brazil. The studied caves are representing both of the karstification mechanism (Epigene & Hypogene). In general, there are two tunnel shapes among the caves: horizontal ellipse & Vertical ellipse shapes. Several factors could be controlled the shape origin of the tunnels, but from this study mainly caused by lithology or the geology structure factor. By comparing with the structural data, the conduit orientation generally shows the same trend. Therefore, these conditions suggest a geometrical correlation between the fractures and the caves, and that the observed fractures almost certainly acted as conduits for fluid flow. The stability analysis showed that the vertical ellipse tunnels are more stable compared to the horizontal ellipse. However, all of the tunnels are already unstable in shallow depth (on average less than 2 km depth). The sensitivity tests show several parameters that would affect the stability: Rock Properties (Rock Mass strength, Rock mass elastic, density), number of tunnels in the system and the distances between multiple tunnels.

The geological history of the McArthur Basin (NT Australia) is poorly understood. It consists of five onshore Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic packages with mainly siliciclastic and carbonate rocks, with cumulative thicknesses up to 15km. The basin contains the world’s oldest hydrocarbons, principally hosted in unconventional reservoirs in the Wilton Package. Fluid flow in these reservoirs is related to natural, reactivated or induced fractures. Characterizing the fracture network is an important part of predicting fluid flow. This study tries to link the geological history to the generation of fractures. The geological history needs to be better understood to characterize the fracture network. In this study seismic, well, outcrop and geophysical data are integrated to construct a cross section that links outcrops (Batten Fault Zone and Broadmere Complex) with the subsurface (Beetaloo Sub-basin). The literature in combination with the cross section is used to revise the geological history. A fieldwork is conducted to study fracture geometries on outcrops of the Wilton Package that are analogues to subsurface fracture networks. A drone is used to image fracture pavements at an order (102m) that is normally missed by geologists (101m) and satellite images (103m). The Tanumbirini-1 well, located in the sub-basin, provides a FMI log for interpreting fractures in the subsurface. A key objective is to differentiate fractures associated with fracture drivers like regional stress, folds and faults. This study identified two unconformities in the seismic data, corresponding to two deformation events. The Carpenteria Event between the Wilton Package and the Inacumba Group is associated with a dominantly N-S oriented stress field and the Borroloola Event within the Inacumba Group corresponds to a mainly E-W oriented stress field. Both events created their own fracture sets and are observed on outcrops and in the subsurface. The tectonic stress is σ1 at the surface but σH,max in the Beetaloo Sub-basin. Fracture generation in the sub-basin happened at another stress regime than the surface outcrop analogues, making any direct comparison less reliable. Hence this study gives a prediction of the fracture density and permeability trends in the sub-basin. A conceptual model of the subsurface permeability is proposed where the permeability trend is mainly E-W oriented.

The structural evolution, phases and amount of deformation, and the strain distribution of the sedimentary cover of a geologically complex area of 270 km2 in the French subalpine chains (Southeast of France; in the surroundings of the village La Motte-Chalancon) were deduced from the modelling of two folded and faulted competent layers (Tithonian and Barremian formations) both in 2D and 3D. These models were constructed from collected geological data such as BRGM (Bureau de Recherches Geologiques et Minères) geological maps, previous Bachelor’s fieldwork data, new field data and the study of aerial photographs (Google Earth). A grid of 20 vertical 2D cross-sections (10 N-S, and 10 E-W) was generated which was then imported and digitized in the geological modelling software package Move and the 3D model of the competent layers was built, validated and restored to its initial configuration prior to deformation by first removing each fault displacement (Fault Parallel Flow method) and then unfolding each structure (Flexural Slip method) in Move, showing deformation and shortening in two directions: N-S and E-W. The amount of deformation in both directions was estimated from the 3D model. Major deformation took place in the N-S direction with a maximum of 21% shortening for both layers which corresponds to an absolute shortening of 4067m for the Tithonian layer and 4076m for the Barremian layer. Less deformation took place in the E-W direction with a maximum of 9% to 10% for the Tithonian and Barremian horizons respectively which corresponds to an absolute shortening of 1697m and 1976m respectively. This resulted in an area reduction of 16% and 19% of the original area prior to deformation for the Tithonian and Barremian, respectively. Two phases of deformation over geological time were deduced from the orientations of the folds and faults present in the studied area. The presence of NW-SE trending folds and thrust faults (e.g. Mt D’Angele fault, Pommerol fault, or Chalancon fault) along with a conjugate strike-slip system (of one oriented N-S and one NE-SW) reflects the NE-SW compressional stress regime of the first stage of deformation which is related to the Pyrenean phase of the Alpine Orogeny. The second stage, the Alpine phase, which resulted in E-W contractions, is associated with the formation of domal/basinal structures as well as folds with plunging fold axes within the studied area. The northeastern part of the studied area exhibits different fault trends. Two tear faults (L’Aiguille and Ruelles fault), a dextral N-S strike-slip fault (Establet fault), and two E-W trending reverse faults (Peyssias and Hidden fault) resulted from N-S compression. These are related to the first phase of the Pyrenean stage, and then later partly rotated during the latter phase of the Alpine stage. The strain maps produced from the 3D model displaying the high-/low-strain zones of the area mainly show E-W and NW-SE trending strain zones which confirm the direction of the main stress regime of the Pyrenean compressional phase oriented NW-SE.

In the mining industry the initial capital expenditure budgeted in the feasibility study is being overrun structurally. These capital expenditure overruns have long been recognised, yet no method is available predicting the probability a mining project will experience an overrun. This thesis introduces a method to assess the likelihood and magnitude of an initial capital expenditure overrun occurring for future gold mining projects. A database is populated with 65 gold mining projects that have experienced an overrun. For each project, 19 variables are described in the database that define the projects. The variables are analysed using individual variable analysis and multivariate regression analysis to investigate whether a correlation can be found between the variables and the initial capital expenditure overrun. Using the results of the individual variable analysis, a tool is developed to semi-quantify the risk a future gold mining project is exposed to regarding an initial capital expenditure overrun. The tool can visualise the risk a project is exposed to in a 2D risk matrix displaying the likelihood and magnitude of a possible overrun. For 16 of the 19 variables a possible correlation is found. The variables are grouped together, representing root causes with regards to the initial capital expenditure overrun. The database analysis suggests that relatively small gold mining projects experience a larger capital expenditure overrun than large gold mining projects. In addition, projects owned by relatively large companies tend to experience a larger capital expenditure overrun. Furthermore, projects where a low number of payback years or a high internal rate of return presented in the bankable feasibility study indicate a profitable project tend to experience a smaller capital expenditure overrun. Finally, the database suggests a correlation between the relative gold price and the capital expenditure overrun. Projects from which the bankable feasibility study was published when the gold price was relatively high, tend to experience initial capital expenditure overruns more frequent and with a larger magnitude. Using the correlations resulting from the database analysis, a predictive tool is successfully developed for which future gold mining projects can be assessed on initial capital expenditure overrun risk.

A three-dimensional geological model has been constructed of a 49 square km area in the sub-Alpine chains in the French Drôme department. The area was situated in the Vocontian Basin, which was an epicontinental sea situated at the western margin of the Alpine Tethys Ocean, between former continents of Gondwana and Laurasia. Formations of limestones and marls have been deposited over a time span of approximately 80 Ma from the Late Jurassic to the Early Cretaceous, which can be classified into eight distinct formations. This was followed by two phases of deformation. First, the counter-clockwise rotation of Iberia into Europe inducing S-N compression in this area. Second, the collision of Adria with the European continent inducing E-W compression. Both events uplifted the area by an estimated 2500 to 3000 m. This thesis uses data collected during the second year fieldwork (course AESB2430) of the Applied Earth Sciences bachelor at Delft University of Technology. The cross sections and geological map from this fieldwork were revised where necessary. Three new cross-sections were constructed along the north, east, and west boundaries of the area for more coverage. All cross-sections were digitized using the Move software package. To check whether these were geologically feasible, they were restored to their pre-deformation state by removing the effect of faulting and folding. These cross-sections form the basis for a 1:25 000 scale three-dimensional model. Horizon surfaces were created between cross-section horizons using spline interpolation and fault surfaces using linear interpolation Fauld displacements are removed and an unfolding is performed on the 3D model, in an attempt to reconstruct a balanced pre-deformational setting. The result is a viable model, with some inaccuracies such as gaps and overlaps between formation surfaces and slight variation s in layer thickness. The aim of this 3D model is to aid the understanding of the configuration of rocks and of the structural evolution of the area. The average shortening due to deformation for cross-sections was found to be 14.71 %. The surface reduction value of the area is found to be 8.2 푘푚 or 14.3 %. The direction of shortening is primarily in the S-N, due to the Iberian collision, and to lesser extent in the E-W direction, due to the Adriatic collision.