Deformation estimates from Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) are relative: they form a ‘free’ network referred to an arbitrary datum, e.g. by assuming a reference point in the image to be stable. However, some applications require ‘absolute’ InSAR estimates, i.e. expressed in a well-defined terrestrial reference frame, e.g. to compare InSAR results with those of other techniques. We propose a methodology based on collocated InSAR and Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) measurements, achieved by rigidly attaching phase-stable millimetre-precision compact active radar transponders to GNSS antennas. We demonstrate this concept through a simulated example and practical case studies in the Netherlands@en

InSAR deformation estimates form a 'free network' referred to an arbitrary datum, e.g. by assuming a reference point in the image to be stable. Consequently, the estimates of any measurement point in the image are dependent of these postulations on reference point stability, and the estimates cannot be compared with datasets of other types of measurement (e.g. historical levelling data or sea-level changes). Yet, some applications require 'absolute' InSAR estimates, i.e. expressed in a well-defined terrestrial reference frame (TRF). We achieve this using collocated InSAR and GNSS measurements, achieved by rigidly attaching phase-stable millimetre-precision compact active transponders to permanent GNSS antennas. The InSAR deformation estimates at these transponders are then estimated in a TRF using the GNSS measurements. Consequently, deformation estimates at all other scatterers are now also defined in the same TRF.@en

The geodetic quality of a low-cost commercial off-the-shelf InSAR transponder has been empirically assessed, both under controlled conditions and operationally for landslide monitoring. Comparison of 113 transponder-InSAR observations with independent validation measurements (levelling or GPS) yields a transponder precision range of 1.8-4.6 mm after outlier removal for double-difference (spatial and temporal) phase measurements in the satellite line of sight for Envisat and ERS-2, making it a compact and lightweight alternative to a corner reflector for C-band InSAR.@en

The geodetic quality of a low-cost commercial off-the-shelf InSAR transponder has been empirically assessed, both under controlled conditions and operationally for landslide monitoring. Comparison of 113 transponder-InSAR observations with independent validation measurements (levelling or GPS) yields a transponder precision range of 1.8-4.6 mm after outlier removal for double-difference (spatial and temporal) phase measurements in the satellite line of sight for Envisat and ERS-2, making it a compact and lightweight alternative to a corner reflector for C-band InSAR.@en

The geodetic quality of a low-cost commercial off-the-shelf InSAR transponder has been empirically assessed, both under controlled conditions and operationally for landslide monitoring. Comparison of 113 transponder-InSAR observations with independent validation measurements (levelling or GPS) yields a transponder precision range of 1.8-4.6 mm after outlier removal for double-difference (spatial and temporal) phase measurements in the satellite line of sight for Envisat and ERS-2, making it a compact and lightweight alternative to a corner reflector for C-band InSAR.@en

The geodetic quality of a low-cost commercial off-the-shelf InSAR transponder has been empirically assessed, both under controlled conditions and operationally for landslide monitoring. Comparison of 113 transponder-InSAR observations with independent validation measurements (levelling or GPS) yields a transponder precision range of 1.8-4.6 mm after outlier removal for double-difference (spatial and temporal) phase measurements in the satellite line of sight for Envisat and ERS-2, making it a compact and lightweight alternative to a corner reflector for C-band InSAR.@en

Detecting a point-like target when it is horizontally displaced is of paramount importance in target tracking and in measuring the motion of glaciers over short intervals of time. This paper performs an experimental study of the accuracy, precision and sensitivity of the horizontal motion detectable using SAR. Therefore point-like targets such as corner reflectors (CR) are moved horizontally in a controlled manner over short time intervals to reproduce the real target motion. Such CR movements are monitored using SAR and the results are compared with the ground truth to arrive at the target horizontal motion determination parameters. Towards this goal three CRs were installed each displaced by a few hundreds of metres in a farmland in Delft, The Netherlands. These corner reflectors are inclined for ERS-2 3-days ice-phase mission starting March 2011. Since the area does not exhibit horizontal motion, one of the CRs was moved horizontally stepwise in the order of a few centimeters to a few metres. At each step the CRs are imaged by SAR and also measured by campaign-style GPS (and with a few leveling campaigns) in order to provide the actual displacement in three dimensions. Then the motion is computed using SAR data and results are compared with the GPS measurements to validate the sensitivity of SAR in detection of motion of the targets. The experimental setup is such that the CRs are visible starting from March 2011 from both ascending and descending orbit TerraSAR-X satellite acquisitions over Delft. Hence similar parameters such as sensitivity, precision and accuracy of motion detection will be derived for X-band SAR as well. Further, in order to substantially verify the reliability of our computations, data from three different field experiments with stable CRs performed with ERS-1/2 in 1996, with ENVISAT from 2003 to 2007 and with ENVISAT from March 2010 to January 2011 in the areas of Groningen, Delft and Cabauw respectively were exploited. The outcome of our experiment will result in the empirical study of the sensitivity of motion detection of point-like targets in C- and X- bands. Also the influence of these parameters under varying imaging conditions such as change in Doppler and perpendicular baselines will be discussed. @en

Detecting a point-like target when it is horizontally displaced is of paramount importance in target tracking and in measuring the motion of glaciers over short intervals of time. This paper performs an experimental study of the accuracy, precision and sensitivity of the horizontal motion detectable using SAR. Therefore point-like targets such as corner reflectors (CR) are moved horizontally in a controlled manner over short time intervals to reproduce the real target motion. Such CR movements are monitored using SAR and the results are compared with the ground truth to arrive at the target horizontal motion determination parameters. Towards this goal three CRs were installed each displaced by a few hundreds of metres in a farmland in Delft, The Netherlands. These corner reflectors are inclined for ERS-2 3-days ice-phase mission starting March 2011. Since the area does not exhibit horizontal motion, one of the CRs was moved horizontally stepwise in the order of a few centimeters to a few metres. At each step the CRs are imaged by SAR and also measured by campaign-style GPS (and with a few leveling campaigns) in order to provide the actual displacement in three dimensions. Then the motion is computed using SAR data and results are compared with the GPS measurements to validate the sensitivity of SAR in detection of motion of the targets. The experimental setup is such that the CRs are visible starting from March 2011 from both ascending and descending orbit TerraSAR-X satellite acquisitions over Delft. Hence similar parameters such as sensitivity, precision and accuracy of motion detection will be derived for X-band SAR as well. Further, in order to substantially verify the reliability of our computations, data from three different field experiments with stable CRs performed with ERS-1/2 in 1996, with ENVISAT from 2003 to 2007 and with ENVISAT from March 2010 to January 2011 in the areas of Groningen, Delft and Cabauw respectively were exploited. The outcome of our experiment will result in the empirical study of the sensitivity of motion detection of point-like targets in C- and X- bands. Also the influence of these parameters under varying imaging conditions such as change in Doppler and perpendicular baselines will be discussed. @en

Detecting a point-like target when it is horizontally displaced is of paramount importance in target tracking and in measuring the motion of glaciers over short intervals of time. This paper performs an experimental study of the accuracy, precision and sensitivity of the horizontal motion detectable using SAR. Therefore point-like targets such as corner reflectors (CR) are moved horizontally in a controlled manner over short time intervals to reproduce the real target motion. Such CR movements are monitored using SAR and the results are compared with the ground truth to arrive at the target horizontal motion determination parameters. Towards this goal three CRs were installed each displaced by a few hundreds of metres in a farmland in Delft, The Netherlands. These corner reflectors are inclined for ERS-2 3-days ice-phase mission starting March 2011. Since the area does not exhibit horizontal motion, one of the CRs was moved horizontally stepwise in the order of a few centimeters to a few metres. At each step the CRs are imaged by SAR and also measured by campaign-style GPS (and with a few leveling campaigns) in order to provide the actual displacement in three dimensions. Then the motion is computed using SAR data and results are compared with the GPS measurements to validate the sensitivity of SAR in detection of motion of the targets. The experimental setup is such that the CRs are visible starting from March 2011 from both ascending and descending orbit TerraSAR-X satellite acquisitions over Delft. Hence similar parameters such as sensitivity, precision and accuracy of motion detection will be derived for X-band SAR as well. Further, in order to substantially verify the reliability of our computations, data from three different field experiments with stable CRs performed with ERS-1/2 in 1996, with ENVISAT from 2003 to 2007 and with ENVISAT from March 2010 to January 2011 in the areas of Groningen, Delft and Cabauw respectively were exploited. The outcome of our experiment will result in the empirical study of the sensitivity of motion detection of point-like targets in C- and X- bands. Also the influence of these parameters under varying imaging conditions such as change in Doppler and perpendicular baselines will be discussed. @en

Detecting a point-like target when it is horizontally displaced is of paramount importance in target tracking and in measuring the motion of glaciers over short intervals of time. This paper performs an experimental study of the accuracy, precision and sensitivity of the horizontal motion detectable using SAR. Therefore point-like targets such as corner reflectors (CR) are moved horizontally in a controlled manner over short time intervals to reproduce the real target motion. Such CR movements are monitored using SAR and the results are compared with the ground truth to arrive at the target horizontal motion determination parameters. Towards this goal three CRs were installed each displaced by a few hundreds of metres in a farmland in Delft, The Netherlands. These corner reflectors are inclined for ERS-2 3-days ice-phase mission starting March 2011. Since the area does not exhibit horizontal motion, one of the CRs was moved horizontally stepwise in the order of a few centimeters to a few metres. At each step the CRs are imaged by SAR and also measured by campaign-style GPS (and with a few leveling campaigns) in order to provide the actual displacement in three dimensions. Then the motion is computed using SAR data and results are compared with the GPS measurements to validate the sensitivity of SAR in detection of motion of the targets. The experimental setup is such that the CRs are visible starting from March 2011 from both ascending and descending orbit TerraSAR-X satellite acquisitions over Delft. Hence similar parameters such as sensitivity, precision and accuracy of motion detection will be derived for X-band SAR as well. Further, in order to substantially verify the reliability of our computations, data from three different field experiments with stable CRs performed with ERS-1/2 in 1996, with ENVISAT from 2003 to 2007 and with ENVISAT from March 2010 to January 2011 in the areas of Groningen, Delft and Cabauw respectively were exploited. The outcome of our experiment will result in the empirical study of the sensitivity of motion detection of point-like targets in C- and X- bands. Also the influence of these parameters under varying imaging conditions such as change in Doppler and perpendicular baselines will be discussed. @en

Detecting a point-like target when it is horizontally displaced is of paramount importance in target tracking and in measuring the motion of glaciers over short intervals of time. This paper performs an experimental study of the accuracy, precision and sensitivity of the horizontal motion detectable using SAR. Therefore point-like targets such as corner reflectors (CR) are moved horizontally in a controlled manner over short time intervals to reproduce the real target motion. Such CR movements are monitored using SAR and the results are compared with the ground truth to arrive at the target horizontal motion determination parameters. Towards this goal three CRs were installed each displaced by a few hundreds of metres in a farmland in Delft, The Netherlands. These corner reflectors are inclined for ERS-2 3-days ice-phase mission starting March 2011. Since the area does not exhibit horizontal motion, one of the CRs was moved horizontally stepwise in the order of a few centimeters to a few metres. At each step the CRs are imaged by SAR and also measured by campaign-style GPS (and with a few leveling campaigns) in order to provide the actual displacement in three dimensions. Then the motion is computed using SAR data and results are compared with the GPS measurements to validate the sensitivity of SAR in detection of motion of the targets. The experimental setup is such that the CRs are visible starting from March 2011 from both ascending and descending orbit TerraSAR-X satellite acquisitions over Delft. Hence similar parameters such as sensitivity, precision and accuracy of motion detection will be derived for X-band SAR as well. Further, in order to substantially verify the reliability of our computations, data from three different field experiments with stable CRs performed with ERS-1/2 in 1996, with ENVISAT from 2003 to 2007 and with ENVISAT from March 2010 to January 2011 in the areas of Groningen, Delft and Cabauw respectively were exploited. The outcome of our experiment will result in the empirical study of the sensitivity of motion detection of point-like targets in C- and X- bands. Also the influence of these parameters under varying imaging conditions such as change in Doppler and perpendicular baselines will be discussed. @en

Detecting a point-like target when it is horizontally displaced is of paramount importance in target tracking and in measuring the motion of glaciers over short intervals of time. This paper performs an experimental study of the accuracy, precision and sensitivity of the horizontal motion detectable using SAR. Therefore point-like targets such as corner reflectors (CR) are moved horizontally in a controlled manner over short time intervals to reproduce the real target motion. Such CR movements are monitored using SAR and the results are compared with the ground truth to arrive at the target horizontal motion determination parameters. Towards this goal three CRs were installed each displaced by a few hundreds of metres in a farmland in Delft, The Netherlands. These corner reflectors are inclined for ERS-2 3-days ice-phase mission starting March 2011. Since the area does not exhibit horizontal motion, one of the CRs was moved horizontally stepwise in the order of a few centimeters to a few metres. At each step the CRs are imaged by SAR and also measured by campaign-style GPS (and with a few leveling campaigns) in order to provide the actual displacement in three dimensions. Then the motion is computed using SAR data and results are compared with the GPS measurements to validate the sensitivity of SAR in detection of motion of the targets. The experimental setup is such that the CRs are visible starting from March 2011 from both ascending and descending orbit TerraSAR-X satellite acquisitions over Delft. Hence similar parameters such as sensitivity, precision and accuracy of motion detection will be derived for X-band SAR as well. Further, in order to substantially verify the reliability of our computations, data from three different field experiments with stable CRs performed with ERS-1/2 in 1996, with ENVISAT from 2003 to 2007 and with ENVISAT from March 2010 to January 2011 in the areas of Groningen, Delft and Cabauw respectively were exploited. The outcome of our experiment will result in the empirical study of the sensitivity of motion detection of point-like targets in C- and X- bands. Also the influence of these parameters under varying imaging conditions such as change in Doppler and perpendicular baselines will be discussed. @en

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) has emerged over the last decade as a technique capable of very accurate (millimetric) measurements of ground deformation occurring at radar scatterers (persistent scatterers or PS) that are phase coherent over a period of time. PSI studies using C-band SAR data have shown that the PS spatial density in urban areas is usually very high (100-300 PS/km2). However, many ground deformation phenomena (e.g. tectonic motion, volcanoes, landslides, mining, gas extraction, CO2 sequestration) occur in uninhabited or rural areas with few man-made structures, leading to much lower PS density because of significant phase decorrelation between subsequent SAR acquisitions. In order for PSI to be effective in monitoring these areas, it has been found that a PS density greater than about 10 PS/km2 is required. Artificial amplitude- and phase-stable radar scatterers may thus have to be introduced in non-urbanised geodynamic areas that have too low a density of PS points. Conceptually the simplest of these artificial PS points are corner reflectors. Several experiments have been performed in the past using these reflectors, with conclusive results about their amplitude and phase stability. They suffer, however, from the disadvantage of large size (in the order of a metre in case of C-band SAR). To make these artificial PS points easy to deploy and maintain, especially in poorly accessible areas, Compact Active Transponders (CATs) have been designed to be used in lieu of corner reflectors. These CATs are small (in the order of a few tens of centimetres), lightweight (<3 kg), less obtrusive, and have the added advantage of a better link budget due to signal amplification by the transponder. They are sealed, function autonomously with internal power and over a wide temperature range, and can operate unattended for more than a year. Additionally, since a CAT is transmitter-specific and is only turned on at the time of the satellite overpass, it offers little interference to other radar or radio targets. However, it is of paramount importance in geodetic applications to ensure that the phase of the CAT remains stable in all operating and environmental conditions. Towards this goal, an experiment to validate the phase stability of CATs has been set up in a farmland in Delft (The Netherlands). The setup comprises three CATs and three corner reflectors, which are installed at distances of a couple of hundred metres from each other. SAR data from the ERS-2 Ice-Phase Mission are being acquired every three days between March and June 2011. Since the area does not exhibit steady ground deformation, some of the units are displaced vertically by a controlled amount. Levelling is performed between the CATs and the corner reflectors as close as possible to each SAR acquisition, in order to validate the height differences obtained from the radar phase information. As a second means of validation, campaign-style GPS is performed on each of the devices to accurately position them in WGS-84 coordinates. One of the CATs in the Delft field experiment has an integrated GPS antenna, to ensure millimetric coregistration and a coherent cross-reference. This novel unit called I2GPS (Integrated Interferometry and GNSS for Precision Survey) has been developed with the objective of producing a fully-integrated deformation map. In addition to providing absolute calibration for PSI data, the high temporal sampling rate of GPS data imparts the capability of accurately detecting abrupt ground motion in three dimensions. With adequate GPS/I2GPS units, the vertical components of the local velocity field can be derived from single-track InSAR line-of-sight displacements. The results and conclusions of this experiment consisting of corner reflectors, CATs and I2GPS will be presented and analysed here.@en

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) has emerged over the last decade as a technique capable of very accurate (millimetric) measurements of ground deformation occurring at radar scatterers (persistent scatterers or PS) that are phase coherent over a period of time. PSI studies using C-band SAR data have shown that the PS spatial density in urban areas is usually very high (100-300 PS/km2). However, many ground deformation phenomena (e.g. tectonic motion, volcanoes, landslides, mining, gas extraction, CO2 sequestration) occur in uninhabited or rural areas with few man-made structures, leading to much lower PS density because of significant phase decorrelation between subsequent SAR acquisitions. In order for PSI to be effective in monitoring these areas, it has been found that a PS density greater than about 10 PS/km2 is required. Artificial amplitude- and phase-stable radar scatterers may thus have to be introduced in non-urbanised geodynamic areas that have too low a density of PS points. Conceptually the simplest of these artificial PS points are corner reflectors. Several experiments have been performed in the past using these reflectors, with conclusive results about their amplitude and phase stability. They suffer, however, from the disadvantage of large size (in the order of a metre in case of C-band SAR). To make these artificial PS points easy to deploy and maintain, especially in poorly accessible areas, Compact Active Transponders (CATs) have been designed to be used in lieu of corner reflectors. These CATs are small (in the order of a few tens of centimetres), lightweight (<3 kg), less obtrusive, and have the added advantage of a better link budget due to signal amplification by the transponder. They are sealed, function autonomously with internal power and over a wide temperature range, and can operate unattended for more than a year. Additionally, since a CAT is transmitter-specific and is only turned on at the time of the satellite overpass, it offers little interference to other radar or radio targets. However, it is of paramount importance in geodetic applications to ensure that the phase of the CAT remains stable in all operating and environmental conditions. Towards this goal, an experiment to validate the phase stability of CATs has been set up in a farmland in Delft (The Netherlands). The setup comprises three CATs and three corner reflectors, which are installed at distances of a couple of hundred metres from each other. SAR data from the ERS-2 Ice-Phase Mission are being acquired every three days between March and June 2011. Since the area does not exhibit steady ground deformation, some of the units are displaced vertically by a controlled amount. Levelling is performed between the CATs and the corner reflectors as close as possible to each SAR acquisition, in order to validate the height differences obtained from the radar phase information. As a second means of validation, campaign-style GPS is performed on each of the devices to accurately position them in WGS-84 coordinates. One of the CATs in the Delft field experiment has an integrated GPS antenna, to ensure millimetric coregistration and a coherent cross-reference. This novel unit called I2GPS (Integrated Interferometry and GNSS for Precision Survey) has been developed with the objective of producing a fully-integrated deformation map. In addition to providing absolute calibration for PSI data, the high temporal sampling rate of GPS data imparts the capability of accurately detecting abrupt ground motion in three dimensions. With adequate GPS/I2GPS units, the vertical components of the local velocity field can be derived from single-track InSAR line-of-sight displacements. The results and conclusions of this experiment consisting of corner reflectors, CATs and I2GPS will be presented and analysed here.@en

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) has emerged over the last decade as a technique capable of very accurate (millimetric) measurements of ground deformation occurring at radar scatterers (persistent scatterers or PS) that are phase coherent over a period of time. PSI studies using C-band SAR data have shown that the PS spatial density in urban areas is usually very high (100-300 PS/km2). However, many ground deformation phenomena (e.g. tectonic motion, volcanoes, landslides, mining, gas extraction, CO2 sequestration) occur in uninhabited or rural areas with few man-made structures, leading to much lower PS density because of significant phase decorrelation between subsequent SAR acquisitions. In order for PSI to be effective in monitoring these areas, it has been found that a PS density greater than about 10 PS/km2 is required. Artificial amplitude- and phase-stable radar scatterers may thus have to be introduced in non-urbanised geodynamic areas that have too low a density of PS points. Conceptually the simplest of these artificial PS points are corner reflectors. Several experiments have been performed in the past using these reflectors, with conclusive results about their amplitude and phase stability. They suffer, however, from the disadvantage of large size (in the order of a metre in case of C-band SAR). To make these artificial PS points easy to deploy and maintain, especially in poorly accessible areas, Compact Active Transponders (CATs) have been designed to be used in lieu of corner reflectors. These CATs are small (in the order of a few tens of centimetres), lightweight (<3 kg), less obtrusive, and have the added advantage of a better link budget due to signal amplification by the transponder. They are sealed, function autonomously with internal power and over a wide temperature range, and can operate unattended for more than a year. Additionally, since a CAT is transmitter-specific and is only turned on at the time of the satellite overpass, it offers little interference to other radar or radio targets. However, it is of paramount importance in geodetic applications to ensure that the phase of the CAT remains stable in all operating and environmental conditions. Towards this goal, an experiment to validate the phase stability of CATs has been set up in a farmland in Delft (The Netherlands). The setup comprises three CATs and three corner reflectors, which are installed at distances of a couple of hundred metres from each other. SAR data from the ERS-2 Ice-Phase Mission are being acquired every three days between March and June 2011. Since the area does not exhibit steady ground deformation, some of the units are displaced vertically by a controlled amount. Levelling is performed between the CATs and the corner reflectors as close as possible to each SAR acquisition, in order to validate the height differences obtained from the radar phase information. As a second means of validation, campaign-style GPS is performed on each of the devices to accurately position them in WGS-84 coordinates. One of the CATs in the Delft field experiment has an integrated GPS antenna, to ensure millimetric coregistration and a coherent cross-reference. This novel unit called I2GPS (Integrated Interferometry and GNSS for Precision Survey) has been developed with the objective of producing a fully-integrated deformation map. In addition to providing absolute calibration for PSI data, the high temporal sampling rate of GPS data imparts the capability of accurately detecting abrupt ground motion in three dimensions. With adequate GPS/I2GPS units, the vertical components of the local velocity field can be derived from single-track InSAR line-of-sight displacements. The results and conclusions of this experiment consisting of corner reflectors, CATs and I2GPS will be presented and analysed here.@en

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) has emerged over the last decade as a technique capable of very accurate (millimetric) measurements of ground deformation occurring at radar scatterers (persistent scatterers or PS) that are phase coherent over a period of time. PSI studies using C-band SAR data have shown that the PS spatial density in urban areas is usually very high (100-300 PS/km2). However, many ground deformation phenomena (e.g. tectonic motion, volcanoes, landslides, mining, gas extraction, CO2 sequestration) occur in uninhabited or rural areas with few man-made structures, leading to much lower PS density because of significant phase decorrelation between subsequent SAR acquisitions. In order for PSI to be effective in monitoring these areas, it has been found that a PS density greater than about 10 PS/km2 is required. Artificial amplitude- and phase-stable radar scatterers may thus have to be introduced in non-urbanised geodynamic areas that have too low a density of PS points. Conceptually the simplest of these artificial PS points are corner reflectors. Several experiments have been performed in the past using these reflectors, with conclusive results about their amplitude and phase stability. They suffer, however, from the disadvantage of large size (in the order of a metre in case of C-band SAR). To make these artificial PS points easy to deploy and maintain, especially in poorly accessible areas, Compact Active Transponders (CATs) have been designed to be used in lieu of corner reflectors. These CATs are small (in the order of a few tens of centimetres), lightweight (<3 kg), less obtrusive, and have the added advantage of a better link budget due to signal amplification by the transponder. They are sealed, function autonomously with internal power and over a wide temperature range, and can operate unattended for more than a year. Additionally, since a CAT is transmitter-specific and is only turned on at the time of the satellite overpass, it offers little interference to other radar or radio targets. However, it is of paramount importance in geodetic applications to ensure that the phase of the CAT remains stable in all operating and environmental conditions. Towards this goal, an experiment to validate the phase stability of CATs has been set up in a farmland in Delft (The Netherlands). The setup comprises three CATs and three corner reflectors, which are installed at distances of a couple of hundred metres from each other. SAR data from the ERS-2 Ice-Phase Mission are being acquired every three days between March and June 2011. Since the area does not exhibit steady ground deformation, some of the units are displaced vertically by a controlled amount. Levelling is performed between the CATs and the corner reflectors as close as possible to each SAR acquisition, in order to validate the height differences obtained from the radar phase information. As a second means of validation, campaign-style GPS is performed on each of the devices to accurately position them in WGS-84 coordinates. One of the CATs in the Delft field experiment has an integrated GPS antenna, to ensure millimetric coregistration and a coherent cross-reference. This novel unit called I2GPS (Integrated Interferometry and GNSS for Precision Survey) has been developed with the objective of producing a fully-integrated deformation map. In addition to providing absolute calibration for PSI data, the high temporal sampling rate of GPS data imparts the capability of accurately detecting abrupt ground motion in three dimensions. With adequate GPS/I2GPS units, the vertical components of the local velocity field can be derived from single-track InSAR line-of-sight displacements. The results and conclusions of this experiment consisting of corner reflectors, CATs and I2GPS will be presented and analysed here.@en

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) has emerged over the last decade as a technique capable of very accurate (millimetric) measurements of ground deformation occurring at radar scatterers (persistent scatterers or PS) that are phase coherent over a period of time. PSI studies using C-band SAR data have shown that the PS spatial density in urban areas is usually very high (100-300 PS/km2). However, many ground deformation phenomena (e.g. tectonic motion, volcanoes, landslides, mining, gas extraction, CO2 sequestration) occur in uninhabited or rural areas with few man-made structures, leading to much lower PS density because of significant phase decorrelation between subsequent SAR acquisitions. In order for PSI to be effective in monitoring these areas, it has been found that a PS density greater than about 10 PS/km2 is required. Artificial amplitude- and phase-stable radar scatterers may thus have to be introduced in non-urbanised geodynamic areas that have too low a density of PS points. Conceptually the simplest of these artificial PS points are corner reflectors. Several experiments have been performed in the past using these reflectors, with conclusive results about their amplitude and phase stability. They suffer, however, from the disadvantage of large size (in the order of a metre in case of C-band SAR). To make these artificial PS points easy to deploy and maintain, especially in poorly accessible areas, Compact Active Transponders (CATs) have been designed to be used in lieu of corner reflectors. These CATs are small (in the order of a few tens of centimetres), lightweight (<3 kg), less obtrusive, and have the added advantage of a better link budget due to signal amplification by the transponder. They are sealed, function autonomously with internal power and over a wide temperature range, and can operate unattended for more than a year. Additionally, since a CAT is transmitter-specific and is only turned on at the time of the satellite overpass, it offers little interference to other radar or radio targets. However, it is of paramount importance in geodetic applications to ensure that the phase of the CAT remains stable in all operating and environmental conditions. Towards this goal, an experiment to validate the phase stability of CATs has been set up in a farmland in Delft (The Netherlands). The setup comprises three CATs and three corner reflectors, which are installed at distances of a couple of hundred metres from each other. SAR data from the ERS-2 Ice-Phase Mission are being acquired every three days between March and June 2011. Since the area does not exhibit steady ground deformation, some of the units are displaced vertically by a controlled amount. Levelling is performed between the CATs and the corner reflectors as close as possible to each SAR acquisition, in order to validate the height differences obtained from the radar phase information. As a second means of validation, campaign-style GPS is performed on each of the devices to accurately position them in WGS-84 coordinates. One of the CATs in the Delft field experiment has an integrated GPS antenna, to ensure millimetric coregistration and a coherent cross-reference. This novel unit called I2GPS (Integrated Interferometry and GNSS for Precision Survey) has been developed with the objective of producing a fully-integrated deformation map. In addition to providing absolute calibration for PSI data, the high temporal sampling rate of GPS data imparts the capability of accurately detecting abrupt ground motion in three dimensions. With adequate GPS/I2GPS units, the vertical components of the local velocity field can be derived from single-track InSAR line-of-sight displacements. The results and conclusions of this experiment consisting of corner reflectors, CATs and I2GPS will be presented and analysed here.@en

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) has emerged over the last decade as a technique capable of very accurate (millimetric) measurements of ground deformation occurring at radar scatterers (persistent scatterers or PS) that are phase coherent over a period of time. PSI studies using C-band SAR data have shown that the PS spatial density in urban areas is usually very high (100-300 PS/km2). However, many ground deformation phenomena (e.g. tectonic motion, volcanoes, landslides, mining, gas extraction, CO2 sequestration) occur in uninhabited or rural areas with few man-made structures, leading to much lower PS density because of significant phase decorrelation between subsequent SAR acquisitions. In order for PSI to be effective in monitoring these areas, it has been found that a PS density greater than about 10 PS/km2 is required. Artificial amplitude- and phase-stable radar scatterers may thus have to be introduced in non-urbanised geodynamic areas that have too low a density of PS points. Conceptually the simplest of these artificial PS points are corner reflectors. Several experiments have been performed in the past using these reflectors, with conclusive results about their amplitude and phase stability. They suffer, however, from the disadvantage of large size (in the order of a metre in case of C-band SAR). To make these artificial PS points easy to deploy and maintain, especially in poorly accessible areas, Compact Active Transponders (CATs) have been designed to be used in lieu of corner reflectors. These CATs are small (in the order of a few tens of centimetres), lightweight (<3 kg), less obtrusive, and have the added advantage of a better link budget due to signal amplification by the transponder. They are sealed, function autonomously with internal power and over a wide temperature range, and can operate unattended for more than a year. Additionally, since a CAT is transmitter-specific and is only turned on at the time of the satellite overpass, it offers little interference to other radar or radio targets. However, it is of paramount importance in geodetic applications to ensure that the phase of the CAT remains stable in all operating and environmental conditions. Towards this goal, an experiment to validate the phase stability of CATs has been set up in a farmland in Delft (The Netherlands). The setup comprises three CATs and three corner reflectors, which are installed at distances of a couple of hundred metres from each other. SAR data from the ERS-2 Ice-Phase Mission are being acquired every three days between March and June 2011. Since the area does not exhibit steady ground deformation, some of the units are displaced vertically by a controlled amount. Levelling is performed between the CATs and the corner reflectors as close as possible to each SAR acquisition, in order to validate the height differences obtained from the radar phase information. As a second means of validation, campaign-style GPS is performed on each of the devices to accurately position them in WGS-84 coordinates. One of the CATs in the Delft field experiment has an integrated GPS antenna, to ensure millimetric coregistration and a coherent cross-reference. This novel unit called I2GPS (Integrated Interferometry and GNSS for Precision Survey) has been developed with the objective of producing a fully-integrated deformation map. In addition to providing absolute calibration for PSI data, the high temporal sampling rate of GPS data imparts the capability of accurately detecting abrupt ground motion in three dimensions. With adequate GPS/I2GPS units, the vertical components of the local velocity field can be derived from single-track InSAR line-of-sight displacements. The results and conclusions of this experiment consisting of corner reflectors, CATs and I2GPS will be presented and analysed here.@en

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) has emerged over the last decade as a technique capable of very accurate (millimetric) measurements of ground deformation occurring at radar scatterers (persistent scatterers or PS) that are phase coherent over a period of time. PSI studies using C-band SAR data have shown that the PS spatial density in urban areas is usually very high (100-300 PS/km2). However, many ground deformation phenomena (e.g. tectonic motion, volcanoes, landslides, mining, gas extraction, CO2 sequestration) occur in uninhabited or rural areas with few man-made structures, leading to much lower PS density because of significant phase decorrelation between subsequent SAR acquisitions. In order for PSI to be effective in monitoring these areas, it has been found that a PS density greater than about 10 PS/km2 is required. Artificial amplitude- and phase-stable radar scatterers may thus have to be introduced in non-urbanised geodynamic areas that have too low a density of PS points. Conceptually the simplest of these artificial PS points are corner reflectors. Several experiments have been performed in the past using these reflectors, with conclusive results about their amplitude and phase stability. They suffer, however, from the disadvantage of large size (in the order of a metre in case of C-band SAR). To make these artificial PS points easy to deploy and maintain, especially in poorly accessible areas, Compact Active Transponders (CATs) have been designed to be used in lieu of corner reflectors. These CATs are small (in the order of a few tens of centimetres), lightweight (<3 kg), less obtrusive, and have the added advantage of a better link budget due to signal amplification by the transponder. They are sealed, function autonomously with internal power and over a wide temperature range, and can operate unattended for more than a year. Additionally, since a CAT is transmitter-specific and is only turned on at the time of the satellite overpass, it offers little interference to other radar or radio targets. However, it is of paramount importance in geodetic applications to ensure that the phase of the CAT remains stable in all operating and environmental conditions. Towards this goal, an experiment to validate the phase stability of CATs has been set up in a farmland in Delft (The Netherlands). The setup comprises three CATs and three corner reflectors, which are installed at distances of a couple of hundred metres from each other. SAR data from the ERS-2 Ice-Phase Mission are being acquired every three days between March and June 2011. Since the area does not exhibit steady ground deformation, some of the units are displaced vertically by a controlled amount. Levelling is performed between the CATs and the corner reflectors as close as possible to each SAR acquisition, in order to validate the height differences obtained from the radar phase information. As a second means of validation, campaign-style GPS is performed on each of the devices to accurately position them in WGS-84 coordinates. One of the CATs in the Delft field experiment has an integrated GPS antenna, to ensure millimetric coregistration and a coherent cross-reference. This novel unit called I2GPS (Integrated Interferometry and GNSS for Precision Survey) has been developed with the objective of producing a fully-integrated deformation map. In addition to providing absolute calibration for PSI data, the high temporal sampling rate of GPS data imparts the capability of accurately detecting abrupt ground motion in three dimensions. With adequate GPS/I2GPS units, the vertical components of the local velocity field can be derived from single-track InSAR line-of-sight displacements. The results and conclusions of this experiment consisting of corner reflectors, CATs and I2GPS will be presented and analysed here.@en

Persistent Scatterer Interferometry (PSI) has emerged over the last decade as a technique capable of very accurate (millimetric) measurements of ground deformation occurring at radar scatterers (persistent scatterers or PS) that are phase coherent over a period of time. PSI studies using C-band SAR data have shown that the PS spatial density in urban areas is usually very high (100-300 PS/km2). However, many ground deformation phenomena (e.g. tectonic motion, volcanoes, landslides, mining, gas extraction, CO2 sequestration) occur in uninhabited or rural areas with few man-made structures, leading to much lower PS density because of significant phase decorrelation between subsequent SAR acquisitions. In order for PSI to be effective in monitoring these areas, it has been found that a PS density greater than about 10 PS/km2 is required. Artificial amplitude- and phase-stable radar scatterers may thus have to be introduced in non-urbanised geodynamic areas that have too low a density of PS points. Conceptually the simplest of these artificial PS points are corner reflectors. Several experiments have been performed in the past using these reflectors, with conclusive results about their amplitude and phase stability. They suffer, however, from the disadvantage of large size (in the order of a metre in case of C-band SAR). To make these artificial PS points easy to deploy and maintain, especially in poorly accessible areas, Compact Active Transponders (CATs) have been designed to be used in lieu of corner reflectors. These CATs are small (in the order of a few tens of centimetres), lightweight (<3 kg), less obtrusive, and have the added advantage of a better link budget due to signal amplification by the transponder. They are sealed, function autonomously with internal power and over a wide temperature range, and can operate unattended for more than a year. Additionally, since a CAT is transmitter-specific and is only turned on at the time of the satellite overpass, it offers little interference to other radar or radio targets. However, it is of paramount importance in geodetic applications to ensure that the phase of the CAT remains stable in all operating and environmental conditions. Towards this goal, an experiment to validate the phase stability of CATs has been set up in a farmland in Delft (The Netherlands). The setup comprises three CATs and three corner reflectors, which are installed at distances of a couple of hundred metres from each other. SAR data from the ERS-2 Ice-Phase Mission are being acquired every three days between March and June 2011. Since the area does not exhibit steady ground deformation, some of the units are displaced vertically by a controlled amount. Levelling is performed between the CATs and the corner reflectors as close as possible to each SAR acquisition, in order to validate the height differences obtained from the radar phase information. As a second means of validation, campaign-style GPS is performed on each of the devices to accurately position them in WGS-84 coordinates. One of the CATs in the Delft field experiment has an integrated GPS antenna, to ensure millimetric coregistration and a coherent cross-reference. This novel unit called I2GPS (Integrated Interferometry and GNSS for Precision Survey) has been developed with the objective of producing a fully-integrated deformation map. In addition to providing absolute calibration for PSI data, the high temporal sampling rate of GPS data imparts the capability of accurately detecting abrupt ground motion in three dimensions. With adequate GPS/I2GPS units, the vertical components of the local velocity field can be derived from single-track InSAR line-of-sight displacements. The results and conclusions of this experiment consisting of corner reflectors, CATs and I2GPS will be presented and analysed here.@en