Radar interferoinetry can be used to obtain sub-kilometer resolution over a swath at the expense of additional transmit power and a sufficiently long baseline to accommodate at least two antennas. This paper reports an innovative concept called AltiCube+, a low-cost long fixed-baseline interferometric radar altimeter based on CubeSats on-orbit assembly. The AltiCube+ concept consists of multiple 16U CubeSats, After an early operation and commissioning phase, these CubeSats will perform autonomous rendezvous and docking with each other via deployable booms to establish a long fixed-baseline, and then deploy antennas for an interferometric altimeter configuration. The uniqueness of AltiCube+ is on the potential scientific opportunities brought by two left and right looking interferometric altimeters with around 6 meter baseline (total system length is more than 8 m) and the sustainability due to its significantly low cost and short development lifecycle. If budget allows, multiple AltiCube+ systems with same or different altimetry capabilities can form a constellation to dramatically reduce the revisit time and, therefore, provide much better spatiotemporal coverage.

Radio frequency interference (RFI) has become a growing concern for weather radar, distorting radar variable estimation. By simultaneously or alternately transmitting the horizontal and vertical polarized waves, polarimetric weather radar can be referred to as SHV radar or AHV radar. The SHV radar can mimic the AHV radar by discarding either H- or V-channel measurements, which leads to an alternating scheme. In this research, the real RFI measurements from an operational C-band SHV radar are used to characterize the RFI temporal, spectral, and polarimetric features. Then, the RFI is simulated to quantify the performance of the object-orientated spectral polarimetric (OBSPol) filter in RFI mitigation. The OBSPol filter has been previously proposed by the authors to mitigate the narrowband clutter (both stationary and moving) and noise. This work extends the application of the filter to remove the RFI for SHV radar. Specifically, by taking advantage of the low copolar correlation of the RFI signal measured in AHV radar, the RFI mitigation method is designed, and its effectiveness is proven by qualitative and quantitative analyses. In particular, in the case of RFI overlapped to weather echoes in the time domain, the RFI can be mitigated, also when the duty cycle of the RFI is high. However, this work does not provide a full evaluation of the RFI mitigation performance on all radar data outputs but a proof of concept to show the effectiveness of the proposed filter for RFI mitigation.

Multiple CubeSat altimeters can work independently or corporately to form altimeter constellations. Different configurations of the constellations can acquire distinguished advantages: improved spatial/temporal sampling and high cross-track resolution, which will be helpful for observations of oceanic small-scale structures and weather forecasting. Compared to single conventional altimeters, CubeSat altimeter constellations may achieve better performances with lower costs. To fully understand these systems, this article focuses on the performance analysis and methodology for CubeSat altimeter constellations. Besides the typical analyses of the resolution, revisit, and absolute sea surface height (SSH) accuracy, the performance analysis was conducted by considering the characteristics of multiple measurements provided by CubeSat altimeter constellations. Local and global spatial sampling performances are investigated for various constellations and compared by sampling density and swath size. Moreover, relative SSH accuracy is introduced and evaluated based on the spatial structure functions of errors to effectively evaluate the measurement performance. Related system requirements on power, delta-v, etc., to achieve the performance are also discussed, which ensures that the analysis fits the boundary conditions of implementation. Finally, different concepts of the CubeSat altimeter constellations are compared, where their limitations and possible solutions are also discussed.

The tremendous progress of small satellite technologies in recent years brings unique opportunities for satellite radar altimetry. Flying radar altimeters onboard a group of small satellites could provide better swath observation, an equivalent or even improved performance and coverage at a much lower price, while complementing large satellite missions. To this end, a feasibility study of a Ka-band altimeter CubeSat constellation for ocean monitoring, called AltiCube, is being carried out by the Delft University of Technology, under the support of the European Space Agency. This paper provides an overview of the AltiCube mission study. First, the potential observation products and performance of five constellation/formation concepts are analyzed. Then the requirements on the platform are discussed based on these concepts. The main focus is on the payload performance and the needed delta-V for the constellation/formation maintenance. Based on the assessment with respect to performance, platform, technological readiness level, cost and other factors, the along-track comb formation (consisting of five identical CubeSats) is selected. Further details of its system design is given in the paper. The selected CubeSat altimeter along-track comb formation shows the capability to map the ocean sub-mesoscale structures, which is extremely hard to monitor using traditional large spaceborne radar altimeters.

We investigated the sensitivity of fully focused SAR (FF-SAR) processing of Cryosat-2 altimeter data to Earth rotation. Earth’s rotation causes scatterers at varying cross-track locations to have a different relative velocity with respect to the satellite. This second-order effect of Earth rotation on the phase is currently not corrected for in FF-SAR processing of altimetry data. The difference is largest near the poles, where the satellite flies parallel to the equator. Not correcting for the second-order effect yields a parabolic shape in the counter-rotated phase, which increases with the cross-track distance. Its effect is, however, limited by the time-in-view of the scatterer, which is shorter at the edge of the altimeter footprint, and therefore destructive interference will not occur when using Cryosat-2 data. For Cryosat-2, the only expected effect is a reduction in power and along-track resolution in the waveform tail and in the grating lobes. If the FF-SAR processor focuses on one point, and there is a bright scatterer at another, then there is a residual parabolic phase, whose sign and shape depend on the cross-track distance and whether the signal is left or right of the chosen focal point. In theory, if the viewed scene only has few bright coherent scatterers, then it might be possible to determine the cross-track position of each. In practice, however, natural targets are rarely coherent over the integration time.

The paper introduces the principles and the technical elements supporting the so-called SwarmSAR concept, consisting in a close formation of simple nodes cooperating in a MIMO-like frame to boost their imaging flexibility and performance. The philosophy of the swarm consists in employing extremely basic but self-sufficient nodes, each one guaranteeing sufficient image quality even when used individually. The costs are hence diverted from the node to the formation launching and maintenance aspects. We promote in this paper the use of S-Band as a convenient frequency both for the single node and for the formation requirements and resourceful for applications. An outline of the envisioned cooperative illumination modes, including high resolution imaging and the interferometric modes, and a preliminary discussion on their expected performance and challenges is provided.

The work investigates staggered and random PRF (Pulse Repetition Frequency) strategies for a close formation of small Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) satellites operating in a multistatic configuration. The satellites are positioned within a fraction of the along-track critical baseline, hence allowing for the application of Displaced Phase Center image formation approaches. The performance of regular and random pulse sampling schemes is in particular assessed for a single-input multiple-output (SIMO) S-Band constellation, whose feasibility is further analyzed in relation to the number of satellites and their antenna size.

A new technique to enhance the indication of moving targets is proposed, which makes use of randomized Stepped Frequency Continuous Wave (SFCW) modulations, where the frequency order is changed from pulse to pulse. This kind of signals gives the possibility to discriminate target responses whose Doppler spectrum is folded back into the clutter region. The discrimination is performed directly during the range compression, so avoiding spectrum aliasing in the Doppler domain. For the range compression, the deramping technique, commonly used with linear SFCW, is extended to the case of non linear stepped modulations. In this way, the sampling constraints can be relaxed also when using randomized SFCW signals, allowing the same sampling frequency as with deramped linear SFCW, and reducing therefore the system complexity. Compared to linear modulations, randomized SFCW signals give also the advantage to suppress range ambiguities and therefore the capability to look at further range.

In recent years, synthetic aperture radar interferometry has become a recognized geodetic tool for observing ground motion. For monitoring areas with low density of coherent targets, artificial corner reflectors (CRs) are usually introduced. The required size of a reflector depends on radar wavelength and resolution and on the required deformation accuracy. CRs have been traditionally used to provide a high signal-to-clutter ratio (SCR). However, large dimensions can make the reflector bulky, difficult to install and maintain. Furthermore, if a large number of reflectors are needed for long infrastructure, such as vegetation-covered dikes, the total price of the reflectors can become unaffordable. On the other hand, small reflectors have the advantage of easy installation and low cost. In this paper, we design and study the use of small reflectors with low SCR for ground motion monitoring. In addition, we propose a new closed-form expression to estimate the interferometric phase precision of resolution cells containing a (strong or weak) point target and a clutter. Through experiments, we demonstrate that the small reflectors can also deliver displacement estimates with an accuracy of a few millimeters. To achieve this, we apply a filtering method for reducing clutter noise.

The microphysical processes in fog are examined based on an analysis of four fog events captured by the in-situ and remote sensing synergy at the Cabauw Experimental Site for Atmospheric Research (CESAR) in the western part of the Netherlands. A 35 GHz cloud radar at CESAR has been used in "fog mode" for the first time in the campaign. In this paper, the microphysical parameterization of fog is first introduced as the basis for analyzing the microphysical processes in the lifecycle of fog. The general microphysical characteristics of the four fog events are studied and key microphysical parameters (droplet number concentration, liquid water content, mean radius, and spectral standard deviation) related to fog are found lower than those in other sites due to the low aerosol concentration at Cabauw. The dominant processes in fog are investigated from the relationships among the key microphysical parameters. The positive correlations of each two parameters in lifecycle stages of a stratus-fog case suggest the dominant scheme in fog is droplet activation with subsequent hygroscopic growth and/or droplet evaporation, which is also supported by the combined observations of visibility and radar reflectivity. The shape of fog drop size distribution regularly broadens and then narrows in the whole lifecycle. However, other mechanisms could exist, although not dominating. Collision-coalescence is a significant factor for the continued growth of big fog droplets when they have reached certain sizes in the mature stage. In the datasets, the collision-coalescence process could be distinguished from the unusual negative correlations among the key microphysical parameters in the lifecycle of another stratus-fog case, and the temporal evolutions of droplet number concentration, mean radius, spectra width, visibility and radar reflectivity show the evidence of it.