As a significant phenomenon in meteorology, fog has attracted more and more concern from the scientific community, because of its impacts on visibility in air- and road-transportation. E.g., at airports, the frequency of aircrafts taking off and landing has to be reduced during heavy fogs, because in conditions of low visibility the pilots need to have more space between the aircrafts during landing and taxying. In this context, many approaches have been proposed to detect fog with various types of instruments. Among the active remote sensing instruments, radars are well suited for continuous fog observations, and they can satisfy the need for high spatial resolution and sensitivity. Compared to traditional centimeter-wave radars, millimeter-wave radars are more sensitive to minute fog droplets, whereas the gaseous attenuation from oxygen and water vapor is still very small. The trade-off is that the attenuation from fog droplets at millimeter waves is much larger than at centimeter waves. In this thesis, we study the observation of fog with millimeter-wave radars and investigate the feasibility of developing an advanced fog-visibility radar.@en

The microphysical processes in fog are examined based on an analysis of four fog events captured by the in-situ and remote sensing synergy at the Cabauw Experimental Site for Atmospheric Research (CESAR) in the western part of the Netherlands. A 35 GHz cloud radar at CESAR has been used in "fog mode" for the first time in the campaign. In this paper, the microphysical parameterization of fog is first introduced as the basis for analyzing the microphysical processes in the lifecycle of fog. The general microphysical characteristics of the four fog events are studied and key microphysical parameters (droplet number concentration, liquid water content, mean radius, and spectral standard deviation) related to fog are found lower than those in other sites due to the low aerosol concentration at Cabauw. The dominant processes in fog are investigated from the relationships among the key microphysical parameters. The positive correlations of each two parameters in lifecycle stages of a stratus-fog case suggest the dominant scheme in fog is droplet activation with subsequent hygroscopic growth and/or droplet evaporation, which is also supported by the combined observations of visibility and radar reflectivity. The shape of fog drop size distribution regularly broadens and then narrows in the whole lifecycle. However, other mechanisms could exist, although not dominating. Collision-coalescence is a significant factor for the continued growth of big fog droplets when they have reached certain sizes in the mature stage. In the datasets, the collision-coalescence process could be distinguished from the unusual negative correlations among the key microphysical parameters in the lifecycle of another stratus-fog case, and the temporal evolutions of droplet number concentration, mean radius, spectra width, visibility and radar reflectivity show the evidence of it.@en

The microphysical processes in fog are examined based on an analysis of four fog events captured by the in-situ and remote sensing synergy at the Cabauw Experimental Site for Atmospheric Research (CESAR) in the western part of the Netherlands. A 35 GHz cloud radar at CESAR has been used in "fog mode" for the first time in the campaign. In this paper, the microphysical parameterization of fog is first introduced as the basis for analyzing the microphysical processes in the lifecycle of fog. The general microphysical characteristics of the four fog events are studied and key microphysical parameters (droplet number concentration, liquid water content, mean radius, and spectral standard deviation) related to fog are found lower than those in other sites due to the low aerosol concentration at Cabauw. The dominant processes in fog are investigated from the relationships among the key microphysical parameters. The positive correlations of each two parameters in lifecycle stages of a stratus-fog case suggest the dominant scheme in fog is droplet activation with subsequent hygroscopic growth and/or droplet evaporation, which is also supported by the combined observations of visibility and radar reflectivity. The shape of fog drop size distribution regularly broadens and then narrows in the whole lifecycle. However, other mechanisms could exist, although not dominating. Collision-coalescence is a significant factor for the continued growth of big fog droplets when they have reached certain sizes in the mature stage. In the datasets, the collision-coalescence process could be distinguished from the unusual negative correlations among the key microphysical parameters in the lifecycle of another stratus-fog case, and the temporal evolutions of droplet number concentration, mean radius, spectra width, visibility and radar reflectivity show the evidence of it.@en

Remote visibility (Vis) estimation by radar is of interest to aviation, road traffic, and other fields. Millimeter-wave radars are suitable candidates because of such advantages as high spatial resolution and sensitivity to small droplets in reflection and attenuation. To investigate remote Vis estimation and to develop physics-based models and algorithms, a 35 GHz cloud radar at the Cabauw Experimental Site for Atmospheric Research (CESAR) in the western part of the Netherlands has acquired data during fog periods in 'fog mode.' The advantage in using millimeter-waves for remote sensing of fog is that they interact strong enough with fog for sensing it, but not too strong so that they can penetrate the fog allowing to sense fog top. Simultaneously, fog drop size distribution (DSD) and Vis are continuously automatically measured by the in situ optical sensors at CESAR. Radar reflectivity (Z) and Vis can be linked theoretically since they are related to the sixth and the second moments of an assumed Gamma-shaped DSD. However, in reality the fog DSD is not always Gamma-shaped, leading to errors in the Vis estimation. A further development of the Vis-Z model includes the attenuation factor (La), which is proportional to the liquid water content at a given radar wavelength. This improves the estimated accuracy of Vis, in the theoretical moments-based model. Finally, we were able to arrive at a higher accuracy by introducing an empirical exponential model, estimating Vis from Z and La. A test based on DSD data sets for various fog types in the literature showed robust performance of the Vis-Z-La model for large variations in DSD. The Vis-Z-La model is also validated with the actual fog data sets that were collected by the in situ and remote sensing instruments synergy at CESAR.@en

Remote visibility (Vis) estimation by radar is of interest to aviation, road traffic, and other fields. Millimeter-wave radars are suitable candidates because of such advantages as high spatial resolution and sensitivity to small droplets in reflection and attenuation. To investigate remote Vis estimation and to develop physics-based models and algorithms, a 35 GHz cloud radar at the Cabauw Experimental Site for Atmospheric Research (CESAR) in the western part of the Netherlands has acquired data during fog periods in 'fog mode.' The advantage in using millimeter-waves for remote sensing of fog is that they interact strong enough with fog for sensing it, but not too strong so that they can penetrate the fog allowing to sense fog top. Simultaneously, fog drop size distribution (DSD) and Vis are continuously automatically measured by the in situ optical sensors at CESAR. Radar reflectivity (Z) and Vis can be linked theoretically since they are related to the sixth and the second moments of an assumed Gamma-shaped DSD. However, in reality the fog DSD is not always Gamma-shaped, leading to errors in the Vis estimation. A further development of the Vis-Z model includes the attenuation factor (La), which is proportional to the liquid water content at a given radar wavelength. This improves the estimated accuracy of Vis, in the theoretical moments-based model. Finally, we were able to arrive at a higher accuracy by introducing an empirical exponential model, estimating Vis from Z and La. A test based on DSD data sets for various fog types in the literature showed robust performance of the Vis-Z-La model for large variations in DSD. The Vis-Z-La model is also validated with the actual fog data sets that were collected by the in situ and remote sensing instruments synergy at CESAR.@en

Remote visibility (Vis) estimation by radar is of interest to aviation, road traffic, and other fields. Millimeter-wave radars are suitable candidates because of such advantages as high spatial resolution and sensitivity to small droplets in reflection and attenuation. To investigate remote Vis estimation and to develop physics-based models and algorithms, a 35 GHz cloud radar at the Cabauw Experimental Site for Atmospheric Research (CESAR) in the western part of the Netherlands has acquired data during fog periods in 'fog mode.' The advantage in using millimeter-waves for remote sensing of fog is that they interact strong enough with fog for sensing it, but not too strong so that they can penetrate the fog allowing to sense fog top. Simultaneously, fog drop size distribution (DSD) and Vis are continuously automatically measured by the in situ optical sensors at CESAR. Radar reflectivity (Z) and Vis can be linked theoretically since they are related to the sixth and the second moments of an assumed Gamma-shaped DSD. However, in reality the fog DSD is not always Gamma-shaped, leading to errors in the Vis estimation. A further development of the Vis-Z model includes the attenuation factor (La), which is proportional to the liquid water content at a given radar wavelength. This improves the estimated accuracy of Vis, in the theoretical moments-based model. Finally, we were able to arrive at a higher accuracy by introducing an empirical exponential model, estimating Vis from Z and La. A test based on DSD data sets for various fog types in the literature showed robust performance of the Vis-Z-La model for large variations in DSD. The Vis-Z-La model is also validated with the actual fog data sets that were collected by the in situ and remote sensing instruments synergy at CESAR.@en