After a 13,000-hour test campaign with aqueous 30 wt% MEA (2-aminoethanol) solvent at the CO2 capture pilot plant at Niederaussem, another long-term test was carried out as part of the ALIGN-CCUS project. This test ran for more than 12,275 hours with aqueous AMP/PZ (2-Amino-2-methyl-1-propanol/piperazine) solvent, named CESAR1 (3.0 molar AMP (~26.74 wt%) and 1.5 molar PZ (~12.92 wt. %)). A minimum specific reboiler duty of 2,970 MJ/tCO2 was identified for the capture plant operation with four active absorber beds (total 16 m packing height) and intercooling (40°C). Neither a lower desorber pressure of 1.5 bar(a), instead of 1.75 bar(a), nor a change of the different positions of intercooling had a significant effect on energy consumption. Reduction of the active packing height to three beds (i.e., 12 m), resulted in a moderately higher specific energy demand (+100 MJ/tCO2). Tests with CO2 capture rates between 90 and 98% showed only a small increase of the specific energy demand at 95% (+20 MJ/tCO2) and four active packings (98%: +250 MJ/tCO2). The average solvent consumption of CESAR1 during 400 days of operation was 0.45 kg/tCO2 and is lower than for MEA if the phase of accelerated non-linear degradation of MEA is taken into account. CESAR1 follows a slow-progressing linear degradation behavior; neither a critical metal ion concentration threshold value could be found that triggers fast degradation nor a correlation between accumulated trace components or metal ion concentrations in the solvent and the degradation rate was observed. Highly transient tests were conducted to investigate the dynamic behavior of the capture plant and subsequently special settings were chosen to stimulate high emissions for the investigation of aerosol-based emissions, connected with performance tests of several emission mitigation measures: single water wash, double water wash, acid wash, dry bed, wet electric precipitator and flue gas pre-treatment. When applying the dry bed configuration, emissions of AMP between 15 - 20 mg/Nm3, PZ between 3 - 7 mg/Nm3, and NH3 below 3 mg/Nm3 were achieved.@en

The amine-based post combustion carbon capture process is one of the most advanced and preferred technologies to reduce CO2 emissions from point sources like power plants. The emissions of amine from capture plants is one of the biggest challenges faced by this technology. These emissions typically occur by means of aerosol/mist formation. To develop effective countermeasures, it is crucial to understand the dynamic behavior of aerosols within the column, which is currently not well understood. This manuscript presents the results from a study aiming to understand the mechanism of aerosol growth and its behavior along the absorber column in terms of particles number concentration, particle size distribution, and amine emissions. For that, a series of experiments were performed in TNO’s bench scale CO2 capture plant using 30 wt% monoethnolamine (MEA) as solvent. For a SO3 and CO2 concentrations of 5.25 ppm and 12.5 vol.% in the flue gas, MEA emissions at the top exit of the column were recorded as 1051 mg/Nm3 (with vapour emissions of 381 mg/Nm3). In the absence of SO3 in the flue gas, inlet particle concentration was 2.71 × 107/cm3 and resulting MEA emissions reduced by 63.5%–383 mg/Nm3. From the bottom of the column until the point of maximum temperature, the MEA content in the vapour phase was consistent with the volatility of the solvent. After this point it drastically increases to 1051 mg/Nm3. Both the number of particles and the total particle mass has lowered from the bottom to the top of the column. For the benchmark test, inlet and outlet total particle concentration were found to be 6.24 × 107/cm3 and 2.3 × 107/cm3 respectively, while total particle mass is 2.22 mg/m3 at inlet and 1.32 mg/m3 at outlet. Particles with a dimeter below 0.006 μm contribute the most to total particle concentration both at the inlet (50%) and outlet (32%), while particles with diameter of 0.087 μm contributes the most to the total particle mass at inlet (47%) and outlet (55%). The measured total mass of particles was in the order of magnitude of 1 mg/m3. This is much lower than the expected aerosol mass emissions, in the order of magnitude of 1 g/Nm3 based on FTIR emissions. No particles larger than 0.147 μm were recorded, which might explain the low total mass recorded. The cause for this is still under investigation, but it suggests that the sampling procedure may induce systematic errors to the measurements. Nonetheless, the observations from this study have given further insight into the aerosol dynamics in the absorber column and corresponding emissions.@en

Total shipping carbon emissions were approximately 938 million tonnes CO2 in 2012. Zero emission shipping options rely on the use of electricity or alternative fuels, such as blue hydrogen or ammonia. However, that requires major modifications to the ships and the logistics of fuel distribution. As a transition solution, which can be implemented on much shorter term; this study presents the technical and economic evaluation for ship-based carbon capture (SBCC) on diesel or LNG-fuelled vessels. Two reference ship engines of 1280 kW and 3000 kW were chosen. The process is simulated using Aspen Plus®, with 30 wt% aqueous monoethanolamine (MEA) and 30 wt% aqueous piperazine (PZ) as solvents. CAPEX and OPEX were reduced by integrating the thermal energy of the exhaust gas with the stripper reboiler for the diesel and LNG powered ships. For the LNG ships, the cooling capacity from evaporation of LNG was used for liquefying the captured CO2. By using piperazine, which allows CO2 to be desorbed at higher pressure than MEA, the minimal cost of CO2 captured achieved was 98 €/tonne CO2 with a corresponding 1.8 million euros equipment cost for the 3000 kW engine ship. Additionally, the feasibility of SBCC is investigated by adapting an existing cargo ship design (powered by the reference 3000 kW engine) for including the carbon capture process equipment. The capture, compression and storage units are fitted onboard, and the design is modified so that the transport capacity remains the same, while maintaining the ship stability.@en

One of the major issues encountered in the Post Combustion CO2 Capture processes is the degradation of the solvent which can be in great part attributed to the presence of oxygen in the solution. The present report focuses on the demonstration of DORA (Dissolved Oxygen Removal Apparatus), a technology developed by TNO as a counter-measure of oxidative degradation. The DORA was first operated in combination with TNO's mobile bench-scale CO2 capture pilot (5 Nm3/h flue gas capacity) with artificial flue gas, showing an instant drop of 15% and an overall reduction of approximately 70% in the ammonia emissions from the absorber, which is an indication of reduced degradation. The technology was also demonstrated using the same pilot in an industrial environment in collaboration with the facility PlantOne bringing DORA from TRL5 to TRL6. This campaign proved that DORA contributed to the deacceleration of solvent degradation. The tests were executed with a porous membrane, and it was observed that exposure to degraded solvents led to solvent leakage through this membrane. Therefore, the use of a coated membrane was proposed to optimize the operation and increase oxygen removal. The use of this membrane is demonstrated at TRL3. Along with that, a model was developed to determine mass transfer resistances and the membrane area required to remove different levels of dissolved oxygen.@en

HiPerCap aims to develop high-potential novel and environmentally benign technologies and processes for post-combustion CO2 capture leading to real breakthroughs. The project includes all the main separation categories for post-combustion CO2 capture, absorption, adsorption and membranes. Each technology category is focused on several promising concepts and a key focus in the project is to demonstrate the potential of these various capture technologies. A methodology has been developed for assessment and fair comparison of the various technologies and benchmarking against a state-of-the art capture technology demonstrated in the CESAR project. In the present paper, this methodology is demonstrated for two of the absorption-based concepts involving precipitating solvent systems. Here, the assessment is based on energy efficiency penalty for the total integrated power plant and capture plant process. Though there is a slight improvement compared to the reference plant (0.5 and 7%, respectively) neither of the two precipitating solvent systems assessed here meet the project target of 25% improvement. However, the uncertainty level in the numbers is higher for these two systems compared to the reference case and the models used for the capture process should be improved before a conclusion can be made. The HiPerCap project is just starting the assessment phase and it must be emphasized that additional assessment criteria will be used and other types of technologies will be assessed before completion at the end of 2017.@en

Aerosol based emissions have been reported from several Post-Combustion CO2 capture (PCCC)pilot plants. These are known to pose a significant challenge in large scale implementation of PCCC processes. The aerosol nuclei are in the form of H2SO4 droplets or Na2SO4 particles, typically less than 0.1 μm and 0.255 μm, respectively. A wet electrostatic precipitator (WESP)is considered to be a potential counter-measure for removing these ultrafine aerosol nuclei from the flue gas. However, it has been observed that at certain operating conditions of the WESP, additional particles are formed which can act as aerosol nuclei. This study was performed to find out the specific operating conditions in terms of feed SO2 concentration and applied WESP voltage, at which WESP results in generation of new particles. In the absence of SO2, no additional particles are formed for the entire range of applied WESP voltage. At the lowest SO2 concentration of 9 ppmv, additional particles were generated beyond 10 kV. The smallest size fractions contribute to more than 99% of the total number of particles, with 0.006 μm contributing to more than 80%. At the outlet of the absorber, although majority of the particles are of 0.006 μm (>60%)and 0.0158 μm (ca. 5%), larger particles of sizes 0.0945 to 0.945 μm, contributes to the remaining 35% of the total number. The shift in number distribution results in increase of aerosol mass from about 10−4 to 5 × 10-3 mg/m3 to 0.2 to 0.5 mg/m3, from the inlet to the outlet of the absorber, respectively. Aerosol based MEA emissions were observed for the lowest SO2 concentration of 9 ppmv and a voltage of 16 kV. Total MEA emissions were in the range of 600–1050 mg/Nm3. Based on these tests, industrial scale WESPs are likely to result in additional particles which can act as aerosol nuclei even at a SO2 concentration as low as 9 ppmv. Additional tests aimed at SO2 concentration lower than 9 ppmv in the feed gas, combinations of varying H2SO4 aerosol and SO2 in feed gas, and varying flue gas velocity needs immediate attention to define the operating limits for WESP.@en

This chapter presents discussion of four selected case studies for sustainable carbon capture. The first case study is a high-level techno-economic integration study for CO2 capture in the waste to energy (WtE) sector, which may result in negative emissions, as a large part of the CO2 is biogenic. Integration of CO2 capture in this sector is essential when the need for district heating is low and/or heat is available at a relatively low price. The second case study describes a groundbreaking techno-economic integration study for CO2 capture on board ships, also called ship-based carbon capture (SBCC). The study considers the operational profile of the ship and uses the available heat integration options to minimize the costs of the process. The third case study entails the techno-economic evaluation of integrating carbon dioxide capture with a biogas facility for biogas upgrading to biomethane. The integrated cycle offers carbon-neutral energy with the potential for negative emissions by storing carbon dioxide underground. The final case study is related to the carbon capture applications in the cement and iron/steel sector. This Page is compulsory Book Title – Sustainable Carbon Capture: Technologies and Applications Chapter Author(s) Jasper A. Ros, TNO, The Netherlands, jasper.ros@tno.nl Juliana G.M-S. Monteiro, TNO, The Netherlands, Juliana.monteiro@tno.nl Earl L.V. Goetheer, TNO, The Netherlands, earl.goetheer@tno.nl Randi Neerup, Center for Energy Resources Engineering (CERE), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Søltofts Plads 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark, rand@kt.dtu.dk Wentao Gong, Center for Energy Resources Engineering (CERE), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Søltofts Plads 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark, wengon@kt.dtu.dk Sai Hema Bhavya Vinjarapu, Center for Energy Resources Engineering (CERE), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Søltofts Plads 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Jens Kristian Jørsboe, Center for Energy Resources Engineering (CERE), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Søltofts Plads 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Sebastian Nis Bay Villadsen, Center for Energy Resources Engineering (CERE), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Søltofts Plads 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark Philip Loldrup Fosbøl, Center for Energy Resources Engineering (CERE), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Søltofts Plads 229, 2800, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark, plf@kt.dtu.dk Chapter Number and Title – Chapter 11, Special Case Studies in Sustainable Carbon Capture@en