Context. Organic macromolecular matter is widespread in the Solar System and is expected to be a dominant carrier of volatile molecules in chondrites. Despite its prevalence in primitive Solar System bodies, its formation pathway is still unclear. Possible scenarios include formation in the interstellar medium, in the early solar nebula, or on planetesimals. Aims. We investigate the formation pathway of organic macromolecular matter via the energetic irradiation of simple ice analogs, mimicking the composition of an early Solar System ice. The organic macromolecular matter created in this way is suggested to resemble the insoluble organic matter found in primitive Solar System bodies. Methods. H₂O:CH₃OH:N₂ mixtures were co-deposited at 10 K onto a vacuum grade aluminum foil attached to a copper sample holder, forming an early Solar System ice analog. The ices were irradiated using 5 keV electrons, and after the irradiation, the aluminum foil was heated above the water desorption temperature. The remaining residues were irradiated again, forming organic macromolecular matter. The carbon structure of the residues were investigated using Raman spectrometry. The characteristic D and G band positions and full width at half maxima were compared to results from organic macromolecular matter in meteorites and interplanetary dust particles. Results. The G band position and full width at half maxima of the investigated residues show similarities to the results obtained by investigating the organic macromolecular matter in interplanetary dust particles. Furthermore, the G band properties indicate that the macromolecular matter formed via the irradiation of simple ice analogs is even more primitive than the matter found in primitive Solar System bodies. Additionally, a tentative dependence on the irradiation temperatures was seen in the G band properties.

Context. The ROSINA instrument on board the Rosetta spacecraft measured, among others, the outgassing of noble gases from comet 67P/Churyumov- Gerasimenko. The interpretation of this dataset and unravelling underlying desorption mechanisms requires detailed laboratory studies. Aims. We aim to improve our understanding of the desorption patterns, trapping, and fractionation of noble gases released from the H₂O:CO₂-dominated ice of comet 67P. Methods. In the laboratory, ice films of neon, argon, krypton, or xenon (Ne, Ar, Kr, and Xe) mixed in CO₂:H₂O were prepared at 15 K. Temperature-programmed desorption mass spectrometry is employed to analyse the desorption behaviour of the noble gases. Mass spectrometric ROSINA data of 67P were analysed to determine the fraction of argon associated with CO₂ and H₂O, respectively. Results. CO₂ has a significant effect on noble gas desorption behaviour, resulting in the co-release of noble gases with CO₂, decreasing the amount of noble gas trapped within water, shifting the pure phase noble gas peak desorption temperature to lower temperatures, and prolonging the trapping of neon. These effects are linked to competition for binding sites in the water ice and the formation of crystalline CO₂. Desorption energies of the pure phase noble gas release were determined and found to be higher than those previously reported in the literature. Enhancement of the Ar/Kr and Ar/Xe ratios are at best 40% and not significantly influenced by the addition of CO₂. Analysis of ROSINA mass spectrometric data shows that the fraction of argon associated with H₂O is 0.53 ± 0.30, which cannot be explained by our laboratory results. Conclusions. Multicomponent ice mixtures affect the desorption behaviour of volatiles compared to simple binary mixtures and experiments on realistic cometary ice analogues are vital to understanding comet outgassing.

Context. Comets are considered to be remnants from the formation of the Solar System. ESA s Rosetta mission targeted comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko and was able to record high-quality data on its chemical composition and outgassing behaviour, including low abundances of N2 that are observed to be correlated with H2O and CO2 in approximately a 63:37 ratio. Aims. In this work, the thermal desorption behaviour of N2 in H2O:CO2 ices was studied in the laboratory to investigate the co-desorption behaviour of N2 within the two most abundant cometary ices in 67P and to derive desorbing fractions in different temperature regimes. Methods. H2O:CO2:N2 ices of various ratios were prepared in a gas mixing system and co-deposited at 15 K onto a copper sample holder. Sublimation of the ice was measured using temperature programmed desorption mass spectrometry. Quantitative values were derived for the fraction of N2 co-desorbing with CO2 and H2O respectively. To validate the results, H2O:CO2:13CO ices were prepared as well. Results. The experiments show that the co-desorption of N2 with CO2 in H2O:CO2:N2 ices depends on the bulk amount of CO2 present in the ice. The fraction of N2 trapped in H2O reduces as more N2 and CO2 are added to the mixture. CO behaves qualitatively similar to N2, but more CO is found to co-desorb with CO2. To reproduce the ratio of N2 desorbing with H2O over that of CO2 (N2(H2O)/N2(CO2)), our ice analogues need to contain =15% CO2, while 67P contains =7.5% CO2. Large fractions of N2 can be removed from the ice due to heating up to 70 K, but for ice that most closely resembles that of 67P, the loss fraction of pure phase N2 is expected to be =20%. Therefore, N2 is suggested to be a minor carrier of nitrogen in the comet.

Aims. The ability of bulk ices (H₂O, CO₂) to trap volatiles has been well studied in any experimental sense, but largely ignored in protoplanetary disk and planet formation models as well as the interpretation of their observations. We demonstrate the influence of volatile trapping on C/O ratios in planet-forming environments. Methods. We created a simple model of CO, CO₂, and H₂O snowlines in protoplanetary disks and calculated the C/O ratio at different radii and temperatures. We included a trapping factor, which partially inhibits the release of volatiles (CO, CO₂) at their snowline and releases them instead, together with the bulk ice species (H₂O, CO₂). Our aim has been to assess its influence of trapping solid-state and gas phase C/O ratios throughout planet-forming environments. Results. Volatile trapping significantly affects C/O ratios in protoplanetary disks. Variations in the ratio are reduced and become more homogeneous throughout the disk when compared to models that do not include volatile trapping. Trapping reduces the proportion of volatiles in the gas and, as such, reduces the available carbon- and oxygen-bearing molecules for gaseous accretion to planetary atmospheres. Volatile trapping is expected to also affect the elemental hydrogen and nitrogen budgets. Conclusions. Volatile trapping is an overlooked, but important effect to consider when assessing the C/O ratios in protoplanetary disks and exoplanet atmospheres. Due to volatile trapping, exoplanets with stellar C/O have the possibility to be formed within the CO and CO₂ snowline.

Various Solar System objects are covered in layers of ice that are dominated by H ₂O, CH ₄, and N ₂ and in which complex chemical processes take place. In this work, the influence of composition and irradiation duration on the volatile irradiation products of mixed CH ₄:N ₂, CH ₄:H ₂O, and CH ₄:H ₂O:N ₂ ices after electron irradiation are studied. The ices were irradiated for 2 or 4 h with 5 keV electrons, followed by a temperature programmed desorption, where the desorption of the volatile irradiation products was observed. The formation of C ₂H _x and C ₃H _x is observed in all ices and for both irradiation times. For the ices containing H ₂O, molecules as large as tentatively identified C ₄H _x and C ₅H _x are observed to co-desorb with water, whereas for CH ₄:N ₂ a continuous desorption signal is observed instead of a sharp desorption peak. A decrease in signal intensity from the 2 to the 4 h irradiation is observed for most m/z signals in CH ₄:H ₂O and CH ₄:H ₂O:N ₂ ices, whereas the opposite is recorded for CH ₄:N ₂, where in general larger signal for longer irradiation duration is seen. The addition of nitrogen to the CH ₄:H ₂O ice did not lead to clear identification of different molecules, but instead to a decrease of the observed signal for complex molecules, suggesting that the addition of nitrogen to the CH ₄:H ₂O mixture primarily leads to a more effective incorporation of material in an organic residue. The analysis of the residue will be subject of future work to complement the findings in this study.

European Space Agency's Rosetta spacecraft at comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko (67P) was the first mission that accompanied a comet over a substantial fraction of its orbit. On board was the Rosetta Orbiter Spectrometer for Ion and Neutral Analysis mass spectrometer suite to measure the local densities of the volatile species sublimating from the ices inside the comet's nucleus. Understanding the nature of these ices was a key goal of Rosetta. We analysed the primary cometary molecules at 67P, namely H ₂O and CO ₂, together with a suite of minor species for almost the entire mission. Our investigation reveals that the local abundances of highly volatile species, such as CH ₄ and CO, are reproduced by a linear combination of both H ₂O and CO ₂ densities. These findings bear similarities to laboratory-based temperature-programmed desorption experiments of amorphous ices and imply that highly volatile species are trapped in H ₂O and CO ₂ ices. Our results do not show the presence of ices dominated by these highly volatile molecules. Most likely, they were lost due to thermal processing of 67P's interior prior to its deflection to the inner solar system. Deviations in the proportions co-released with H ₂O and CO ₂ can only be observed before the inbound equinox, when the comet was still far from the sun and the abundance of highly volatile molecules associated with CO ₂ outgassing were lower. The corresponding CO ₂ is likely seasonal frost, which sublimated and lost its trapped highly volatile species before re-freezing during the previous apparition. CO, on the other hand, was elevated during the same time and requires further investigation.

Spectroscopic instruments were a part of payloads on orbiter and lander missions and delivered vast data sets to explore minerals, elements and molecules on air-less rocky planets, asteroids and comets on global and local scales. To answer current space science questions, the chemical composition of planetary rocks and soils at grain scale is required, as well as measurements of element (isotope) concentrations down to the part per million or lower. Only mass spectrometric methods equipped with laser sampling ion sources can deliver the necessary information. Laser sampling techniques can reduce the dimensions of the investigated sample material down to micrometre scale, allowing for the composition analysis of grain-sized objects or thin mineral layers with sufficiently high spatial resolution, such that important geological processes can be recognised and studied as they progressed in time. We describe the performance characteristics, when applied to meteorite and geological samples, of a miniaturised laser ablation/ionisation mass spectrometer (named LMS) system that has been developed in our group. The main advantages of the LMS instrument over competing techniques are illustrated by examples of high spatial (lateral and vertical) resolution studies in different meteorites, terrestrial minerals and fossil-like structures in ancient rocks for most elements of geochemical interest. Top-level parameters, such as dimension, weight, and power consumption of a possible flight design of the LMS system are presented as well.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are found on various planetary surfaces in the solar system. They are proposed to play a role in the emergence of life, as molecules that are important for biological processes could be derived from them. In this work, four PAHs (pyrene, perylene, anthracene, and coronene) were measured using the ORganics Information Gathering INstrument system (ORIGIN), a lightweight laser desorption ionization-mass spectrometer designed for space exploration missions. In this contribution, we demonstrate the current measurement capabilities of ORIGIN in detecting PAHs at different concentrations and applied laser pulse energies. Furthermore, we show that chemical processing of the PAHs during measurement is limited and that the parent mass can be detected in the majority of cases. The instrument achieves a 3σ detection limit in the order of femtomol mm ⁻² for all four PAHs, with the possibility of further increasing this sensitivity. This work illustrates the potential of ORIGIN as an instrument for the detection of molecules important for the emergence or presence of life, especially when viewed in combination with previous results by the instrument, such as the identification of amino acids. ORIGIN could be used on a lander or rover platform for future in situ missions to targets in the solar system, such as the icy moons of Jupiter or Saturn.

Recent and past observations of chemical and physical peculiarities in the atmosphere of Venus have renewed speculations about the existence of life in its clouds. To find signs of Venusian life, a dedicated astrobiological space exploration mission is required, and for this reason the Venus Life Finder mission is currently being prepared. A Venus Life Finder mission will require dedicated and specialized instruments to hunt for biosignatures and habitability indicators. In this contribution, we present the ORIGIN space instrument, a laser desorption/laser ablation ionization mass spectrometer. This instrument is designed to detect large, non-volatile molecules, specifically biomolecules such as amino acids and lipids. At the same time, it can also be used in ablation mode for elemental composition analysis. Recent studies with this space prototype instrument of amino acids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, lipids, salts, metals, sulphur isotopes, and microbial elemental composition are discussed in the context of studies of biosignatures and habitability indicators in Venus’s atmosphere. The implementation of the ORIGIN instrument into a Venus Life Finder mission is discussed, emphasizing the low weight and low power consumption of the instrument. An instrument design and sample handling system are presented that make optimal use of the capabilities of this instrument. ORIGIN is a highly versatile instrument with proven capabilities to investigate and potentially resolve many of the outstanding questions about the atmosphere of Venus and the presence of life in its clouds.

In the search for extraterrestrial life, biosignatures (e.g., organic molecules) play an important role, of which lipids are one considerable class. If detected, these molecules can be strong indicators of the presence of life, past or present, as they are ubiquitous in life on Earth. However, their detection is challenging, depending on, e.g., instrument performance, as well as the selected site. In this contribution, we demonstrate that, using laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry, detection of lipids is feasible. Using our space prototype instrument designed and built in-house, six representative lipids were successfully detected: cholecalciferol, phylloquinone, menadione, 17α-ethynylestradiol, α-tocopherol, and retinol, both as pure substances and as mixtures additionally containing amino acids or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Observed limits of detection for lipids already meet the requirements stated in the Enceladus Orbilander mission concept. The current performance of our LDI-MS system allows for the simultaneous identification of lipids, amino acids, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, using a single instrument. We therefore believe that the LDI-MS system is a promising candidate for future space exploration missions devoted to life detection.