A 2D finite element model is developed to simulate the protection of active protective coatings in a defect. The leaching kinetics, inhibitor-electrolyte reactions and electrochemical surface reactions on homogenized AA2024-T3, are considered. Changes in local oxygen distribution, pH, and current density over time are validated using surface scanning micro-probe techniques. The limitations posed by the prediction of surface current density at the metal interface using a FEM model with a homogenized microstructure are identified and addressed. The validated FEM is then used to predict inhibitor concentration and pH dependent on the initial inhibitor pigment concentration in an organic coating.

In this work, the correlation between electrolyte transport properties and the variation of pigment volume concentration (PVC) in a series of organic coatings is explored. Using an odd random phase electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (ORP-EIS) approach, the diffusion of ions independent from water take-up is analysed. A higher PVC resulted in a more homogeneous coating morphology, which could be associated with a faster diffusion of ions following a Fickian regime and enhanced water uptake. In the case of lower pigment loading, the obtained heterogenous morphology of the coating introduced new challenges to the physical interpretation of the proposed electrochemical equivalent circuit.

In this work, the corrosion mechanism of AA2024-T3 covered by a lithium-based conversion layer is studied with high spatial and temporal resolution. Although the aluminium alloy surface is protected by a multi-layered conversion layer, areas around intermetallic phases (IMPs) represent weak spots due to an insufficient generation of a protective inner dense layer. For the freshly formed conversion layer, both the top and the inner layer undergo a gradual dissolution upon exposure to relatively dilute NaCl solution within 2 h due to their chemical instability. For the ambiently-aged conversion layer, most corrosion activity around IMPs is related to the S-phase and large constituent phases, due to their active nature and the lower local conversion layer quality, respectively. Moreover, S-phase-related corrosion activity lasts approximately 8 h due to fast dissolution whereas reactions induced by large constituent particles remain active over the entire re-immersion period of 12 h.

The influence of ageing under ambient conditions on the corrosion protective behaviour of a lithium-based conversion layer on AA2024-T3 is studied in this work. Conversion layers aged at ambient conditions for relatively short times (0 h and 4 h), show an initial high degree of corrosion inhibition but a much lower protectiveness after the inhibition stage terminates. Conversion layers with relatively long ageing times (24 h and 72 h) show a rather stable corrosion resistance which is higher than that of short-time aged samples. It is hypothesized that the freshly-formed conversion layer has trapped a certain amount of lithium ions and water molecules, leading to ongoing and heterogeneous growth of the conversion layer with time under ambient indoor conditions. Moreover, conversion layers with short ageing times show early-stage active corrosion protection by lithium-ion release.

The effect of the presence of an anodic film and hybrid sol-gel coating loaded with corrosion inhibitors was evaluated as a strategy for enhanced barrier and active corrosion protection of aluminium alloy 2024-T3. In this study, AA2024-T3 specimens were anodized in a modified sulphuric-citric acid bath (SCA) as the first layer of a corrosion protective multilayer system and subsequently protected by the application of silica-based hybrid sol-gel coatings. These coatings were doped with LiNO₃ and Ce(NO₃)₃ as corrosion inhibitors and studied in comparison with the inhibitor-free sol-gel coating in terms of morphology, composition and corrosion protection of intact and scribed specimens. The anodized AA2024-T3 with an overlaying inhibitor-free sol-gel coating showed the highest impedance modulus during long-term immersion in 0.1 mol·L⁻¹ NaCl aqueous solution. Active corrosion protection of scribed coated specimens was studied by exposure to a 0.5 mol·L⁻¹ NaCl solution and evaluated by surface analytical techniques. The addition of Li- and Ce-based salts into the hybrid sol-gel formulation showed active corrosion protection compared to the inhibitor-free scribed hybrid sol-gel coating. The Ce-doped sol-gel coating showed less visual corrosion and higher active corrosion protection than the Li-containing one during the long-term immersion test in 0.5 mol·L⁻¹ NaCl. Present findings reveal that the combination of the anodic/hybrid sol-gel layers on AA2024-T3 enhances the corrosion protective properties barrier properties of both stand-alone systems and the incorporation of Li- and Ce-based inhibitors provide active corrosion.

Lithium salts have been proposed as promising environmentally friendly alternatives to carcinogenic hexavalent chromium-based inhibitors for the corrosion protection of aerospace aluminium alloys (AAs). Incorporated into organic coatings, lithium salts are released at damaged locations to establish a conversion layer in which distinct sublayers have different barrier characteristics. Thus, detailed knowledge on the sequence of formation events from the early stages of nucleation towards the final multi-layered arrangement is essential for developing and optimising lithium-leaching technology for protective coatings. Here, liquid-phase-transmission electron microscopy (LP-TEM) is employed to observe nanoscopic morphological evolutions in situ during the lithium-based conversion process of AA2024-T3. Thanks to dedicated preparation of delicate sandwiched TEM specimens allowing us to explore the events cross-sectionally, we provide real-time direct mechanistic information on the conversion process from the initiation to an advanced growth stage. In parallel, we perform supplementary ex situ SEM and TEM investigations to support and validate the LP-TEM findings. The unprecedented experimental approach developed and executed in this study provides an inspiring base for studying also other complicated surface conversion processes in situ and at the nanoscopic scale.

Liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy (LP-TEM) has provided corrosion scientists with a unique opportunity to directly correlate nanoscopic morphological and compositional evolutions to the corresponding electrochemical response of corroding thin TEM specimens. Electrochemical liquid cell designs are key components of a LP-TEM study towards an implementation which is representative for realistic exposure conditions of bulk samples. However, the application of commercially available liquid cells in corrosion studies brings along an important shortcoming of galvanic coupling effects due to the inevitable connection of the TEM specimens with Pt patterned electrodes. Here, we introduce an approach of fabricating electrochemical liquid cells to alleviate the current cell design challenge for corrosion studies. Besides, we present a protocol for preparing thin specimens to be electrochemically investigated with our home-made electrochemical liquid cell. We finally confirm the effectiveness of this methodology by electrochemically evaluating thin specimens of AA2024-T3 in an open-cell configuration through open circuit potential and potentiodynamic polarisation measurements.