A.Z. Ali
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1
The increasing contamination of surface water and groundwater with organic micropollutants (OMPs) poses serious environmental and public health risks. These OMPs, originating from municipal and industrial wastewater streams, include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, personal care products and industrial chemicals. Although typically present in concentrations ranging from ng L-1 to few μg L-1, they are persistent, bioactive and can lead to antibiotic resistance, endocrine disruption and even carcinogenic effects. Current wastewater treatment technologies are ineffective towards the complete removal of most OMPs present in the wastewater. Therefore, additional treatment steps are essential.
Among advanced treatment methods, photoelectrocatalytic based advanced oxidation processes (PEC-AOPs) have attracted increasing interest due to their ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide radicals (•O₂⁻). These ROS can degrade OMPs into less harmful products or mineralizing them entirely. Bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) has emerged as a visible-light-responsive photocatalyst for PECAOPs due to its narrow band gap (~2.4 eV) and photostability. However, its practical application is limited by fast charge recombination and limited scalability in real wastewater. Most studies are limited to a single pollutant at high concentrations (1–10 mg L-1) in demineralized or ultra-pure water, with limited attention to real-world scenarios involving mixtures of OMPs at concentrations below 1 mg L-1. Moreover, few studies address scalability using process level simulations. Knowledge gaps thus include understanding the simultaneous removal of multiple OMPs at concentrations below 1 mg L-1 and integrating lab-scale reaction insights into conceptual reactor models using realistic operational variables.
This dissertation presents a comprehensive study on BiVO4 based photoanodes for the photoelectrocatalytic removal of OMPs, with the objective of effectively removing single and multiple OMPs from demineralized water at concentrations below 1 mg L-1. To achieve this objective, pristine BiVO₄ was first investigated as a baseline visible-light-responsive photoanode. Subsequently, two heterojunction strategies were investigated to overcome the intrinsic charge-carrier recombination limitation of BiVO₄. BiVO₄/BiOI was selected to enhance charge separation and extend visible-light absorption, whereas TiO₂-GO was coupled with BiVO₄ to further improve charge separation and interfacial properties. In the TiO₂-GO layer, graphene oxide (GO) was incorporated because of its ability to promote charge separation and provide a high specific surface area for adsorption of OMP molecules. In addition, the study explored reactor scale-up using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Pristine BiVO4 photoanodes using a simple dip-coating method on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) substrates have been fabricated, followed by thermal annealing at 460°C for 2 h. These photoanodes were structurally and opto-electronically characterized and subsequently tested for the simultaneous removal of three environmentally relevant OMPs - acetaminophen, benzotriazole and propranolol - each at 45 μg L-1 in demineralized water. When operated at an applied voltage of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl) under simulated solar irradiation, the photoanode achieved removal efficiency of 99% for both acetaminophen and propranolol and 70% for benzotriazole within 2 h. The degradation followed first-order kinetics, with rate coefficients of 2.84 × 10⁻², 2.44 × 10⁻², and 9.35 × 10⁻³ min⁻¹ for acetaminophen, propranolol, and benzotriazole, respectively, demonstrating substantially slower degradation of benzotriazole. Quenching experiments indicated that •OH was the dominant reactive species…
...
Among advanced treatment methods, photoelectrocatalytic based advanced oxidation processes (PEC-AOPs) have attracted increasing interest due to their ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide radicals (•O₂⁻). These ROS can degrade OMPs into less harmful products or mineralizing them entirely. Bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) has emerged as a visible-light-responsive photocatalyst for PECAOPs due to its narrow band gap (~2.4 eV) and photostability. However, its practical application is limited by fast charge recombination and limited scalability in real wastewater. Most studies are limited to a single pollutant at high concentrations (1–10 mg L-1) in demineralized or ultra-pure water, with limited attention to real-world scenarios involving mixtures of OMPs at concentrations below 1 mg L-1. Moreover, few studies address scalability using process level simulations. Knowledge gaps thus include understanding the simultaneous removal of multiple OMPs at concentrations below 1 mg L-1 and integrating lab-scale reaction insights into conceptual reactor models using realistic operational variables.
This dissertation presents a comprehensive study on BiVO4 based photoanodes for the photoelectrocatalytic removal of OMPs, with the objective of effectively removing single and multiple OMPs from demineralized water at concentrations below 1 mg L-1. To achieve this objective, pristine BiVO₄ was first investigated as a baseline visible-light-responsive photoanode. Subsequently, two heterojunction strategies were investigated to overcome the intrinsic charge-carrier recombination limitation of BiVO₄. BiVO₄/BiOI was selected to enhance charge separation and extend visible-light absorption, whereas TiO₂-GO was coupled with BiVO₄ to further improve charge separation and interfacial properties. In the TiO₂-GO layer, graphene oxide (GO) was incorporated because of its ability to promote charge separation and provide a high specific surface area for adsorption of OMP molecules. In addition, the study explored reactor scale-up using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Pristine BiVO4 photoanodes using a simple dip-coating method on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) substrates have been fabricated, followed by thermal annealing at 460°C for 2 h. These photoanodes were structurally and opto-electronically characterized and subsequently tested for the simultaneous removal of three environmentally relevant OMPs - acetaminophen, benzotriazole and propranolol - each at 45 μg L-1 in demineralized water. When operated at an applied voltage of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl) under simulated solar irradiation, the photoanode achieved removal efficiency of 99% for both acetaminophen and propranolol and 70% for benzotriazole within 2 h. The degradation followed first-order kinetics, with rate coefficients of 2.84 × 10⁻², 2.44 × 10⁻², and 9.35 × 10⁻³ min⁻¹ for acetaminophen, propranolol, and benzotriazole, respectively, demonstrating substantially slower degradation of benzotriazole. Quenching experiments indicated that •OH was the dominant reactive species…
...
The increasing contamination of surface water and groundwater with organic micropollutants (OMPs) poses serious environmental and public health risks. These OMPs, originating from municipal and industrial wastewater streams, include pharmaceuticals, pesticides, personal care products and industrial chemicals. Although typically present in concentrations ranging from ng L-1 to few μg L-1, they are persistent, bioactive and can lead to antibiotic resistance, endocrine disruption and even carcinogenic effects. Current wastewater treatment technologies are ineffective towards the complete removal of most OMPs present in the wastewater. Therefore, additional treatment steps are essential.
Among advanced treatment methods, photoelectrocatalytic based advanced oxidation processes (PEC-AOPs) have attracted increasing interest due to their ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide radicals (•O₂⁻). These ROS can degrade OMPs into less harmful products or mineralizing them entirely. Bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) has emerged as a visible-light-responsive photocatalyst for PECAOPs due to its narrow band gap (~2.4 eV) and photostability. However, its practical application is limited by fast charge recombination and limited scalability in real wastewater. Most studies are limited to a single pollutant at high concentrations (1–10 mg L-1) in demineralized or ultra-pure water, with limited attention to real-world scenarios involving mixtures of OMPs at concentrations below 1 mg L-1. Moreover, few studies address scalability using process level simulations. Knowledge gaps thus include understanding the simultaneous removal of multiple OMPs at concentrations below 1 mg L-1 and integrating lab-scale reaction insights into conceptual reactor models using realistic operational variables.
This dissertation presents a comprehensive study on BiVO4 based photoanodes for the photoelectrocatalytic removal of OMPs, with the objective of effectively removing single and multiple OMPs from demineralized water at concentrations below 1 mg L-1. To achieve this objective, pristine BiVO₄ was first investigated as a baseline visible-light-responsive photoanode. Subsequently, two heterojunction strategies were investigated to overcome the intrinsic charge-carrier recombination limitation of BiVO₄. BiVO₄/BiOI was selected to enhance charge separation and extend visible-light absorption, whereas TiO₂-GO was coupled with BiVO₄ to further improve charge separation and interfacial properties. In the TiO₂-GO layer, graphene oxide (GO) was incorporated because of its ability to promote charge separation and provide a high specific surface area for adsorption of OMP molecules. In addition, the study explored reactor scale-up using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Pristine BiVO4 photoanodes using a simple dip-coating method on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) substrates have been fabricated, followed by thermal annealing at 460°C for 2 h. These photoanodes were structurally and opto-electronically characterized and subsequently tested for the simultaneous removal of three environmentally relevant OMPs - acetaminophen, benzotriazole and propranolol - each at 45 μg L-1 in demineralized water. When operated at an applied voltage of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl) under simulated solar irradiation, the photoanode achieved removal efficiency of 99% for both acetaminophen and propranolol and 70% for benzotriazole within 2 h. The degradation followed first-order kinetics, with rate coefficients of 2.84 × 10⁻², 2.44 × 10⁻², and 9.35 × 10⁻³ min⁻¹ for acetaminophen, propranolol, and benzotriazole, respectively, demonstrating substantially slower degradation of benzotriazole. Quenching experiments indicated that •OH was the dominant reactive species…
Among advanced treatment methods, photoelectrocatalytic based advanced oxidation processes (PEC-AOPs) have attracted increasing interest due to their ability to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and superoxide radicals (•O₂⁻). These ROS can degrade OMPs into less harmful products or mineralizing them entirely. Bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) has emerged as a visible-light-responsive photocatalyst for PECAOPs due to its narrow band gap (~2.4 eV) and photostability. However, its practical application is limited by fast charge recombination and limited scalability in real wastewater. Most studies are limited to a single pollutant at high concentrations (1–10 mg L-1) in demineralized or ultra-pure water, with limited attention to real-world scenarios involving mixtures of OMPs at concentrations below 1 mg L-1. Moreover, few studies address scalability using process level simulations. Knowledge gaps thus include understanding the simultaneous removal of multiple OMPs at concentrations below 1 mg L-1 and integrating lab-scale reaction insights into conceptual reactor models using realistic operational variables.
This dissertation presents a comprehensive study on BiVO4 based photoanodes for the photoelectrocatalytic removal of OMPs, with the objective of effectively removing single and multiple OMPs from demineralized water at concentrations below 1 mg L-1. To achieve this objective, pristine BiVO₄ was first investigated as a baseline visible-light-responsive photoanode. Subsequently, two heterojunction strategies were investigated to overcome the intrinsic charge-carrier recombination limitation of BiVO₄. BiVO₄/BiOI was selected to enhance charge separation and extend visible-light absorption, whereas TiO₂-GO was coupled with BiVO₄ to further improve charge separation and interfacial properties. In the TiO₂-GO layer, graphene oxide (GO) was incorporated because of its ability to promote charge separation and provide a high specific surface area for adsorption of OMP molecules. In addition, the study explored reactor scale-up using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). Pristine BiVO4 photoanodes using a simple dip-coating method on fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) substrates have been fabricated, followed by thermal annealing at 460°C for 2 h. These photoanodes were structurally and opto-electronically characterized and subsequently tested for the simultaneous removal of three environmentally relevant OMPs - acetaminophen, benzotriazole and propranolol - each at 45 μg L-1 in demineralized water. When operated at an applied voltage of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl) under simulated solar irradiation, the photoanode achieved removal efficiency of 99% for both acetaminophen and propranolol and 70% for benzotriazole within 2 h. The degradation followed first-order kinetics, with rate coefficients of 2.84 × 10⁻², 2.44 × 10⁻², and 9.35 × 10⁻³ min⁻¹ for acetaminophen, propranolol, and benzotriazole, respectively, demonstrating substantially slower degradation of benzotriazole. Quenching experiments indicated that •OH was the dominant reactive species…
Journal article
(2025)
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Agha Zeeshan Ali, Yuhao Wu, Bas Wols, Mohamad Zeidan, Henri Spanjers, Jan Peter van der Hoek
In this study, we investigated the use of BiVO4/TiO2-GO heterojunction photoanode in a PEC based AOP to simultaneously remove four organic micropollutants (OMPs): benzotriazole (BTA), carbamazepine (CBZ), caffeine (CAF) and diclofenac (DIC) from demineralized water. Each OMP had an initial concentration of 40 µg L−1. Ultrasonic spray pyrolysis (USP) was used to deposit BiVO4 and TiO2-GO layers on fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) electrodes. The heterojunction photoanode at an applied voltage of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl) achieved simultaneous removal efficiencies of 100 % for DIC, 54 % for CBZ, 36 % for BTA and 33 % for BTA under simulated solar light. Compared to the pristine BiVO4 photoanode, the heterojunction photoanode showed 50 % higher removal efficiency for BTA, CBZ and CAF. The reaction kinetics revealed that the first order rate coefficient for DIC removal was about nine times higher than that of CBZ and fifteen times higher than those of BTA and CAF. To assess scalability, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model incorporating the experimentally determined reaction kinetics was developed for a conceptually designed up-scaled PEC reactor. The model analyzed the effect of reactor design and fluid flow conditions on the removal of OMPs. Under turbulent flow conditions, enhanced removal efficiency was observed for all four OMPs, which was attributed to the effects of eddy diffusion and convective mixing. The optimized reactor design under turbulent flow condition achieved an 80 % removal efficiency for all four OMPs within 25 min under a light intensity of 400 W m−2. The findings highlight the potential of BiVO4/TiO2-GO heterojunction photoanodes for efficient and scalable PEC water treatment, showing a promising approach for the elimination of OMPs from wastewater.
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In this study, we investigated the use of BiVO4/TiO2-GO heterojunction photoanode in a PEC based AOP to simultaneously remove four organic micropollutants (OMPs): benzotriazole (BTA), carbamazepine (CBZ), caffeine (CAF) and diclofenac (DIC) from demineralized water. Each OMP had an initial concentration of 40 µg L−1. Ultrasonic spray pyrolysis (USP) was used to deposit BiVO4 and TiO2-GO layers on fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) electrodes. The heterojunction photoanode at an applied voltage of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl) achieved simultaneous removal efficiencies of 100 % for DIC, 54 % for CBZ, 36 % for BTA and 33 % for BTA under simulated solar light. Compared to the pristine BiVO4 photoanode, the heterojunction photoanode showed 50 % higher removal efficiency for BTA, CBZ and CAF. The reaction kinetics revealed that the first order rate coefficient for DIC removal was about nine times higher than that of CBZ and fifteen times higher than those of BTA and CAF. To assess scalability, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model incorporating the experimentally determined reaction kinetics was developed for a conceptually designed up-scaled PEC reactor. The model analyzed the effect of reactor design and fluid flow conditions on the removal of OMPs. Under turbulent flow conditions, enhanced removal efficiency was observed for all four OMPs, which was attributed to the effects of eddy diffusion and convective mixing. The optimized reactor design under turbulent flow condition achieved an 80 % removal efficiency for all four OMPs within 25 min under a light intensity of 400 W m−2. The findings highlight the potential of BiVO4/TiO2-GO heterojunction photoanodes for efficient and scalable PEC water treatment, showing a promising approach for the elimination of OMPs from wastewater.
Journal article
(2025)
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Agha Zeeshan Ali, Sanjeeb Mohapatra, Jan Peter van der Hoek, Henri Spanjers
The publisher regrets that in the original publication, the disclosure statement in the footnote is incorrect. It should read as follows:
“Given the role as a guest editor, Sanjeeb Mohapatra had no involvement in the peer review of the article and has no access to information regarding its peer review. Full responsibility for the editorial process of this article was delegated to Rakesh Kumar”.
The publisher would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. ...
“Given the role as a guest editor, Sanjeeb Mohapatra had no involvement in the peer review of the article and has no access to information regarding its peer review. Full responsibility for the editorial process of this article was delegated to Rakesh Kumar”.
The publisher would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused. ...
The publisher regrets that in the original publication, the disclosure statement in the footnote is incorrect. It should read as follows:
“Given the role as a guest editor, Sanjeeb Mohapatra had no involvement in the peer review of the article and has no access to information regarding its peer review. Full responsibility for the editorial process of this article was delegated to Rakesh Kumar”.
The publisher would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused.
“Given the role as a guest editor, Sanjeeb Mohapatra had no involvement in the peer review of the article and has no access to information regarding its peer review. Full responsibility for the editorial process of this article was delegated to Rakesh Kumar”.
The publisher would like to apologise for any inconvenience caused.
Sustainable advanced wastewater treatment via photoelectrocatalytic oxidation
Insights from life cycle assessment
This study presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a scaled-up photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) oxidation system for wastewater treatment, modelled using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The system used a BiVO4/TiO2-GO photoanode for solar-driven degradation of micropollutants. The LCA assesses energy use, resource demand, and emissions to evaluate the system’s sustainability in line with EU wastewater regulations. Compared to a full-scale ozonation plant in the Netherlands, the PEC system shows superior environmental performance during operation and end-of-life phases, despite higher construction impacts. Solar energy use and potential material reuse drive these advantages. A comparison with theoretical pilot-scale oxidation technologies from literature adds depth, though the study acknowledges limitations such as micropollutant variability and wastewater complexity. Overall, the findings highlight PEC oxidation’s promise as a sustainable and effective approach for micropollutant removal in water treatment.
...
This study presents a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a scaled-up photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) oxidation system for wastewater treatment, modelled using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The system used a BiVO4/TiO2-GO photoanode for solar-driven degradation of micropollutants. The LCA assesses energy use, resource demand, and emissions to evaluate the system’s sustainability in line with EU wastewater regulations. Compared to a full-scale ozonation plant in the Netherlands, the PEC system shows superior environmental performance during operation and end-of-life phases, despite higher construction impacts. Solar energy use and potential material reuse drive these advantages. A comparison with theoretical pilot-scale oxidation technologies from literature adds depth, though the study acknowledges limitations such as micropollutant variability and wastewater complexity. Overall, the findings highlight PEC oxidation’s promise as a sustainable and effective approach for micropollutant removal in water treatment.
BiVO4-based photoanodes for the photoelectrocatalytic removal of trace organic pollutants from water
A mini review on recent developments
This mini review explores the potential of visible light–driven bismuth vanadate (BiVO4)-based photoanodes for removing trace organic pollutants from water. It highlights the advantages of using BiVO4-based photoanodes over conventional UV-driven photoanodes in water treatment. The mechanism of reactive species generation through water oxidation is discussed. The review also highlights the role of sulfate and sulfite radicals in enhancing pollutant degradation. Furthermore, it evaluates how heterojunction formation improves the removal efficiency of BiVO4-based photoanodes by reducing charge carrier recombination. Limited research on BiVO4-based photoanodes for the simultaneous removal of multiple organic pollutants at low concentrations (<1 mg L−1) from real wastewater is identified as a key knowledge gap. Addressing this gap could advance the application of BiVO4-based photoanodes in photoelectrocatalytic-based advanced oxidation processes.
...
This mini review explores the potential of visible light–driven bismuth vanadate (BiVO4)-based photoanodes for removing trace organic pollutants from water. It highlights the advantages of using BiVO4-based photoanodes over conventional UV-driven photoanodes in water treatment. The mechanism of reactive species generation through water oxidation is discussed. The review also highlights the role of sulfate and sulfite radicals in enhancing pollutant degradation. Furthermore, it evaluates how heterojunction formation improves the removal efficiency of BiVO4-based photoanodes by reducing charge carrier recombination. Limited research on BiVO4-based photoanodes for the simultaneous removal of multiple organic pollutants at low concentrations (<1 mg L−1) from real wastewater is identified as a key knowledge gap. Addressing this gap could advance the application of BiVO4-based photoanodes in photoelectrocatalytic-based advanced oxidation processes.
The presence of organic micro-pollutants (OMPs) in wastewater treatment effluents is becoming a major threat to the water safety for aquatic and human health. Photo-electrocatalytic based advanced oxidation process (AOP) is one of the emerging and effective techniques to degrade OMPs through oxidative mechanism. This study investigated the application of heterojunction based BiVO4/BiOI photoanode for acetaminophen (40 μg L−1) removal in demineralized water. Photoanodes were fabricated by electrodeposition of BiVO4 and BiOI photocatalytic layers. Optical (UV–vis diffusive reflectance spectroscopy), structural (XRD, SEM, EDX) and opto-electronic (IPCE) characterization confirmed the successful formation of heterojunction for enhanced charge separation efficiency. The heterojunction photoanode showed incident photon to current conversion efficiency of 16% (λmax = 390 nm) at an external voltage of 1 V under AM 1.5 standard illumination. The application of the BiVO4/BiOI photoanode in the removal of acetaminophen at 1 V (external bias) vs Ag/AgCl under simulated sunlight showed 87% removal efficiency within the first 120 min compared to 66% removal efficiency of the BiVO4 photoanode. Similarly, combining BiVO4 and BiOI exhibited 57% increase in first order removal rate coefficient compared to BiVO4. The photoanodes also showed moderate stability and reusability by showing 26% decrease in overall degradation efficiency after three cycles of each 5 h experiment. The results obtained in this study can be considered as a stepping stone towards the effective removal of acetaminophen as an OMP present in wastewater.
...
The presence of organic micro-pollutants (OMPs) in wastewater treatment effluents is becoming a major threat to the water safety for aquatic and human health. Photo-electrocatalytic based advanced oxidation process (AOP) is one of the emerging and effective techniques to degrade OMPs through oxidative mechanism. This study investigated the application of heterojunction based BiVO4/BiOI photoanode for acetaminophen (40 μg L−1) removal in demineralized water. Photoanodes were fabricated by electrodeposition of BiVO4 and BiOI photocatalytic layers. Optical (UV–vis diffusive reflectance spectroscopy), structural (XRD, SEM, EDX) and opto-electronic (IPCE) characterization confirmed the successful formation of heterojunction for enhanced charge separation efficiency. The heterojunction photoanode showed incident photon to current conversion efficiency of 16% (λmax = 390 nm) at an external voltage of 1 V under AM 1.5 standard illumination. The application of the BiVO4/BiOI photoanode in the removal of acetaminophen at 1 V (external bias) vs Ag/AgCl under simulated sunlight showed 87% removal efficiency within the first 120 min compared to 66% removal efficiency of the BiVO4 photoanode. Similarly, combining BiVO4 and BiOI exhibited 57% increase in first order removal rate coefficient compared to BiVO4. The photoanodes also showed moderate stability and reusability by showing 26% decrease in overall degradation efficiency after three cycles of each 5 h experiment. The results obtained in this study can be considered as a stepping stone towards the effective removal of acetaminophen as an OMP present in wastewater.
Journal article
(2023)
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Agha Zeeshan Ali, Sadhna Jagannathan, Yasmina-Doekhi Bennani, Jan Peter van der Hoek, Henri Spanjers
In this research, photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) based advanced oxidation process (AOP) was studied for the removal of multiple OMPs through an oxidative mechanism. This study investigated the application of a BiVO4 photoanode in simultaneous removal of three selected OMPs: acetaminophen (ACT), benzotriazole (BTA) and propranolol (PRO). This study was carried out in demineralized water with a starting concentration of each organic micro-pollutant (OMP) at 45 μg L−1. In order to fabricate BiVO4 photoanodes, a facile and effective dip-coating method was used to deposit BiVO4 photocatalytic layers on fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) substrate. UV–vis diffusive reflectance spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction (XRD), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed the successful fabrication of porous BiVO4 photoanode having an absorbance edge at around 526 nm. The fabricated photoanode showed incident photon to current conversion efficiency (IPCE) of 9.23% (λmax=445 nm) under 1 Sun standard illumination. Application of the fabricated photoanodes for the simultaneous removal of ACT, PRO and BTA at an applied voltage of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl) under solar simulated light resulted in 99% removal of both ACT and PRO, and 70% removal of BTA. The first order rate coefficients and half-life times of ACT and PRO were about three times higher than those of BTA.
...
In this research, photoelectrocatalytic (PEC) based advanced oxidation process (AOP) was studied for the removal of multiple OMPs through an oxidative mechanism. This study investigated the application of a BiVO4 photoanode in simultaneous removal of three selected OMPs: acetaminophen (ACT), benzotriazole (BTA) and propranolol (PRO). This study was carried out in demineralized water with a starting concentration of each organic micro-pollutant (OMP) at 45 μg L−1. In order to fabricate BiVO4 photoanodes, a facile and effective dip-coating method was used to deposit BiVO4 photocatalytic layers on fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) substrate. UV–vis diffusive reflectance spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction (XRD), x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed the successful fabrication of porous BiVO4 photoanode having an absorbance edge at around 526 nm. The fabricated photoanode showed incident photon to current conversion efficiency (IPCE) of 9.23% (λmax=445 nm) under 1 Sun standard illumination. Application of the fabricated photoanodes for the simultaneous removal of ACT, PRO and BTA at an applied voltage of 1 V (vs Ag/AgCl) under solar simulated light resulted in 99% removal of both ACT and PRO, and 70% removal of BTA. The first order rate coefficients and half-life times of ACT and PRO were about three times higher than those of BTA.