Background: Foot morphology has received increasing attention from both biomechanics researches and footwear manufacturers. Usually, the morphology of the foot is quantified by 2D footprints. However, footprint quantification ignores the foot's vertical dimension and hence, does not allow accurate quantification of complex 3D foot shape. Methods: The shape variation of healthy 3D feet in a population of 31 adult women and 31 adult men who live in Belgium was studied using geometric morphometric methods. The effect of different factors such as sex, age, shoe size, frequency of sport activity, Body Mass Index (BMI), foot asymmetry, and foot loading on foot shape was investigated. Correlation between these factors and foot shape was examined using multivariate linear regression. Results: The complex nature of a foot's 3D shape leads to high variability in healthy populations. After normalizing for scale, the major axes of variation in foot morphology are (in order of decreasing variance): arch height, combined ball width and inter-toe distance, global foot width, hallux bone orientation (valgus-varus), foot type (e.g. Egyptian, Greek), and midfoot width. These first six modes of variation capture 92.59% of the total shape variation. Higher BMI results in increased ankle width, Achilles tendon width, heel width and a thicker forefoot along the dorsoplantar axis. Age was found to be associated with heel width, Achilles tendon width, toe height and hallux orientation. A bigger shoe size was found to be associated with a narrow Achilles tendon, a hallux varus, a narrow heel, heel expansion along the posterior direction, and a lower arch compared to smaller shoe size. Sex was found to be associated with differences in ankle width, Achilles tendon width, and heel width. Frequency of sport activity was associated with Achilles tendon width and toe height. Conclusion: A detailed analysis of the 3D foot shape, allowed by geometric morphometrics, provides insights in foot variations in three dimensions that can not be obtained from 2D footprints. These insights could be applied in various scientific disciplines, including orthotics and shoe design.@en

Background Pedobarography produces large sets of plantar pressure samples that are routinely subsampled (e.g. using regions of interest) or aggregated (e.g. center of pressure trajectories, peak pressure images) in order to simplify statistical analysis and provide intuitive clinical measures. Research Question We hypothesize that these data reductions discard gait information that can be used to differentiate between groups or conditions. Methods To test the hypothesis of null information loss, we created an implementation of statistical parametric mapping (SPM) for dynamic plantar pressure datasets (i.e. plantar pressure videos). Our SPM software framework brings all plantar pressure videos into anatomical and temporal correspondence, then performs statistical tests at each sampling location in space and time. Novelly, we introduce non-linear temporal registration into the framework in order to normalize for timing differences within the stance phase. We refer to our software framework as STAPP: spatiotemporal analysis of plantar pressure measurements. Using STAPP, we tested our hypothesis on plantar pressure videos from 33 healthy subjects walking at different speeds. Results As walking speed increased, STAPP was able to identify significant decreases in plantar pressure at mid-stance from the heel through the lateral forefoot. The extent of these plantar pressure decreases have not previously been observed using existing plantar pressure analysis techniques. Significance We therefore conclude that the subsampling of plantar pressure videos - a task which led to the discarding of gait information in our study - can be avoided using STAPP. @en

Data reduction techniques are commonly applied to dynamic plantar pressure measurements, often prior to the measurement's analysis. In performing these data reductions, information is discarded from the measurement before it can be evaluated, leading to unkonwn consequences. In this study, we aim to provide the first assessment of what impact data reduction techniques have on plantar pressure measurements. Specifically, we quantify the extent to which information of any kind is discarded when performing common data reductions. Plantar pressure measurements were collected from 33 healthy controls, 8 Hallux Valgus patients, and 10 Metatarsalgia patients. Eleven common data reductions were then applied to the measurements, and the resulting datasets were compared to the original measurement in three ways. First, information theory was used to estimate the information content present in the original and reduced datasets. Second, principal component analysis was used to estimate the number of intrinsic dimensions present. Finally, a permutational multivariate ANOVA was performed to evaluate the significance of group differences between the healthy controls, Hallux Valgus, and Metatarsalgia groups. The evaluated data reductions showed a minimum of 99.1% loss in information content and losses of dimensionality between 20.8% and 83.3%. Significant group differences were also lost after each of the 11 data reductions (α=0.05), but these results may differ for other patient groups (especially those with highly-deformed footprints) or other region of interest definitions. Nevertheless, the existence of these results suggest that the diagnostic content of dynamic plantar pressure measurements is yet to be fully exploited.@en

The high prevalence of foot pain, and its relation to foot shape, indicates the need for an expert system to identify foot shape abnormalities. Yet, to date, no such expert system exists that examines the full 3D foot shape and produces an intuitive explanation of why a foot is abnormal. In this work, we present the first such expert system that satisfies those goals. The system is based on the concept of model-based outlier detection: a statistical shape model (SSM) is generated from 186 3D optical foot scans of healthy feet. This model acts as a knowledge base which is then parameterized by one's demographic characteristics (e.g., age, weight, height, shoe size) through a multivariate regression. This regression introduces model flexibility as it allows the model to be fine tuned to a specific individual. This fine tuned model is then used as a baseline to which the individual's 3D foot scan can be compared using standard statistical tests (e.g. t-tests). These statistical tests are performed at each vertex along the foot surface to identify the degree and location of shape outliers. Our expert system was validated on foot scans from patients with hallux valgus and abnormal foot arches. As expected, our results varied per patient, confirming that feet with the same clinical classification still show high shape variability. Additionally, the foot shape abnormalities identified by our system not only agreed with the expected location and severity of the tested foot deformities, but our analysis of the full 3D foot shape was able to completely characterize the extent of those abnormalities for the first time. These results show that the combination of statistical shape modelling, multivariate regression, and statistical testing is powerful enough to perform outlier detection for 3D foot shapes. The resulting insights provided by this system could prove useful in both shoe design and clinical diagnosis.@en

This paper presents a registration framework for the construction of a statistical shape model of the human hand in a standard pose. It brings a skeletonized reference model of an individual human hand into correspondence with optical 3D surface scans of hands by sequentially applying articulation-based registration and elastic surface registration. Registered surfaces are then fed into a statistical shape modelling algorithm based on principal component analysis. The model-building technique has been evaluated on a dataset of optical scans from 100 healthy individuals, acquired with a 3dMD scanning system. It is shown that our registration framework provides accurate geometric and anatomical alignment, and that the shape basis of the resulting statistical model provides a compact representation of the specific population. The model also provides insight into the anatomical variation of the lower arm and hand, which is useful information for the design of well-fitting products.@en

This paper presents a registration framework for the construction of a statistical shape model of the human hand in a standard pose. It brings a skeletonized reference model of an individual human hand into correspondence with optical 3D surface scans of hands by sequentially applying articulation-based registration and elastic surface registration. Registered surfaces are then fed into a statistical shape modelling algorithm based on principal component analysis. The model-building technique has been evaluated on a dataset of optical scans from 100 healthy individuals, acquired with a 3dMD scanning system. It is shown that our registration framework provides accurate geometric and anatomical alignment, and that the shape basis of the resulting statistical model provides a compact representation of the specific population. The model also provides insight into the anatomical variation of the lower arm and hand, which is useful information for the design of well-fitting products.@en

While dynamic plantar pressure measurements are commonly used for clinical evaluation of gait-related problems, computational analysis techniques for these datasets are few and farbetween. To address this issue, we introduce an open-access database of plantar pressure videos for researchers to develop algorithms around.@en

Quantitative analyses of plantar pressure images typically occur at the group level and under the assumption that individuals within each group display homogeneous pressure patterns. When this assumption does not hold, a personalized analysis technique is required. Yet, existing personalized plantar pressure analysis techniques work at the image level, leading to results that can be unintuitive and difficult to interpret. To address these limitations, we introduce PAPPI: the Personalized Analysis of Plantar Pressure Images. PAPPI is built around the statistical modelling of the relationship between plantar pressures in healthy controls and their demographic characteristics. This statistical model then serves as the healthy baseline to which an individual’s real plantar pressures are compared using statistical parametric mapping. As a proof-of-concept, we evaluated PAPPI on a cohort of 50 hallux valgus patients. PAPPI showed that plantar pressures from hallux valgus patients did not have a single, homogeneous pattern, but instead, 5 abnormal pressure patterns were observed in sections of this population. When comparing these patterns to foot pain scores (i.e. Foot Function Index, Manchester-Oxford Foot Questionnaire) and radiographic hallux angle measurements, we observed that patients with increased pressure under metatarsal 1 reported less foot pain than other patients in the cohort, while patients with abnormal pressures in the heel showed more severe hallux valgus angles and more foot pain. Also, incidences of pes planus were higher in our hallux valgus cohort compared to the modelled healthy controls. PAPPI helped to clarify recent discrepancies in group-level plantar pressure studies and showed its unique ability to produce quantitative, interpretable, and personalized analyses for plantar pressure images.@en

This study characterizes plantar pressure differences betweenhallux valgus patients and healthycontrols using statistical parametric mapping(SPM).The plantar pressuredifferences are minimalwhich, combinedwith previous studies, suggesthigh variability in the plantar pressures of hallux valgus patients@en